UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


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MAY  TREAT  MORRISON 

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ALEXANDER  F  MORRISON 


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ANNALS   OF   SWITZERLAND 


ANNALS 


SWITZERLAND 


BY 


JULIA   M.   COLTON 

1 1 


NEW  YORK 
A.  S.  BARNES   AND   COMPANY 

LONDON:  HODDER  &  STOUGHTON 
1897 


Copyright,  1897, 
By  a.  S.  Barnes  &  Co. 


All  rights  reserved. 


©ntbersitg  ?Ptess: 
John  Wilson  and  Son,  Cambridge,  U.S.A. 


f 


I 

V 


TO 

A.  L.  P. 


«  Ah,  Fredome  is  a  noble  thing  ; 
Fredome  makes  man  to  haiff  lyking ; 
Fredome  all  solace  to  man  giffis, 
He  levys  at  ease  that  freely  levys." 


42?903 


PREFACE 


It  seems  strange  that  Switzerland,  a  country 

so  popular  among  tourists,  so  extolled  by  every 

lover  of  nature,  so  appreciated  by  those  who 

realize 

"  What  pleasure  lies  in  height !  " 

should  have  found  few  to  chronicle  in  the  Eng- 
lish tongue  the  inspiring  events  of  her  history. 
Many  records  have  been  written  in  the  native 
German  and  French  languages,  but  for  the 
English  reader,  the  fragmentary  facts  of  the 
guide-book  have  provided  the  chief  historical 
information  concerning  a  land  where  the  blood- 
red  of  the  battle-field  is  environed  with  prismatic 
tints  of  romance. 

It  is  the  aim  of  the  "  Annals  of  Switzerland  " 
to  present  a  brief,  consecutive  narrative  of  the 
struggles,  progress,  and  attainments  of  a  race 
of  freemen ;  but  traditions    which    belong    as 


Vlll 


Preface 


truly  to  the  land  as  do  its  glaciers  and  ava- 
lanches cannot  be  ignored  in  pages  which 
seek  to  depict  the  development  of  this  de- 
mocracy, founded  three  centuries  before  the 
Reformation. 

J.  M.  C. 

Brooklyn,  May  6, 1897. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGB 

I.   Helvetia 5 

II.  Supremacy  of  the  Franks,  Imperial  Rule, 

and  Zeringen  Dynasty 13 

III.  The  League  of  Three  Lands 21 

IV.  Growth  of  the  Confederacy 37 

V.  The  Era  of  Sempach  and  Nafels     ...  51 

VI.   The  Council  of  Constance 64 

VII.  Civil  Wars  and  the  Everlasting  Compact  .  74 

VIII.   War  with  Burgundy 85 

IX.  Grandson,  Morat,  and  Nancy     ....  95 

X.   League  of  Thirteen  Districts 112 

XI.  Mercenary  Service  and  the  French  Alliance,  123 

XII.   The  Apostle  of  Switzerland 131 

XIII.  The  Religious  Struggle 141 

XIV.  Geneva 153 

XV.   Conflicts  and  Controversies 170 

XVI.    The  Victory  Won 180 

XVII.    Calvin  in  Geneva 192 

XVIII.   The  Borromean  League 204 


2  Contents. 

CHAPTER  PAGB 

XIX.   Freedom  from  the  Empire 214 

XX.  Progress  in  Political  Enfranchisement      .  226 

XXI.  The  Era  of  the  French  Revolution ...  237 

XXII.   The  League  of  Rothen 252 

XXIII.  The  Sonderbund  War 271 

XXIV.  The  Constitutions  of  1848  and  1874.     .     .  281 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Cantonal  Coats  of  Arms Frontispiece, 

Map  of  Switzerland facing  p.  vii 

Chamonix :  Le  Groupe  de  De  Saussure  et  le 

5 

19 
31 
35 
37 
57 
71 
81 

91 

95 
119 
127 
140 

145 
161 

173 
187 

195 
209 


Mont-Blanc 

Brunnen    

Tell's  Chapel 

Altdorf :  Statue  of  William  Tell    . 

Luzern 

Lake  of  Thunn 

Martigny :  The  Castle     .... 
Bluebeard's  Castle,  near  Interlaken 

The  Jungfrau 

Map  of  Burgundy 

Clock  Tower  at  Bern 

Lauterbrunnen 

Seal  of  Zurich 

Zurich 

Castle  of  Chillon 

The  Reformers 

Lake  of  Geneva 

Cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  Geneva 
St.  Gothard  Pass 


List  of  Illustrations 


Wesen facing  p.  221 

Maloja "  227 

Lion  of  Luzern "  237 

Goeschennen "  261 

Near  Klosters  —  Silbretta  Glacier      ...        "  275 

The  Axenstrasse "  285 


AUTHORITIES. 


Daguet Ahr6g6  de  I'Histoire  Suisse. 

Zschokke History  of  Switzerland. 

Duruy History  of  France. 

Hallam History  of  Middle  Ages, 

Kirk History  of  Charles  the  Bold. 

Coxa House  of  Austria. 

D'Aubign6 History  of  Reformation. 

Fisher History  of  Reformation. 

Seebohtn History  of  Reformation. 

Bryce Holy  Roman  Empire. 

Christoffel Life  of  Zwingli. 

Grote Letters  on  Switzerland. 

Winchester Swiss  Republic. 

Adams  &  Cunningham,  Swiss  Confederation. 

Bernard  Moses    .    .    .  Federal  Government  of  Switzerland. 


ANNALS  OF  SWITZERLAND 


CHAPTER  I 

HELVETIA 

Borne  upon  wavering  wings  of  tradition,  a 
legend  floated  long  ago  over  the  Alps,  to  begin 
the  story  of  Switzerland.  Falling  to  earth  in 
the  region  near  the  sources  of  the  Rhine  and 
the  Inn,  the  legend  told  of  a  people  from  Italy, 
—  perhaps  kindred  to  the  Etruscans,  —  who, 
wandering  northward  during  years  veiled  amid 
myths,  rested  where  the  district  of  Rhetia  pre- 
served the  name  of  the  tribe,  as  well  as  that  of 
their  god  Rhetus. 

Neither  revelatory  legend,  nor  archaeological 
research  has  traced  the  ties  of  kinship  between 
the  Rhetians  and  the  Latin  race  of  Lake-dwel- 
lers, whose  architectural  and  domestic  remains 
have  procured  their  introduction  to  the  modern 
world,  but  both  claim  recognition  among  ances- 
tors of  the  Swiss.  Wanderers  from  Scandinavia, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  brothers  Switer  and 


6  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Swen,  are  reputed  to  have  founded  the  Canton 
of  Scbwy?",:  and  thee  Grecian  emigrants  from 
Massilia,  whose  joiifrie]^  *to  the  Lake  of  the 
remote  Wilderness  ^  was  chronicled  by  Herod- 
otus, have  also  been  named  among  predeces- 
sors of  the  Helvetic  nation. 

In  the  region  bounded  by  the  Rhine,  the  Jura 
mountains,  Lake  Leman,  and  the  Lake  of  Con- 
The  Hei-  stance,  authentic  history  begins  four 
vetians.  ^^  ^^^  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era,  when  the  land  was  occupied  by  a  valorous 
people,  living  in  separate  communities.  Each 
community  was  independent  within  its  own  dis- 
trict, unless  a  common  interest  rendered  union 
of  strength  advantageous,  as  in  the  case  of  peo- 
ples on  the  Rhine  and  the  Thor,  whose  com- 
pact gave  to  their  united  lands  the  surviving 
name  of  Thurgau. 

We  find  records  of  warlike  expeditions 
among  the  tribes  occupying  this  territory  dur- 
ing the  last  years  of  the  second  century  B.  C, 
when  a  martial  impulse  had  been  excited  by 
the  exploits  of  their  neighbors,  the  Cimbri  and 
Teutones,  and  in  search  of  both  glory  and  spoil 
forces  of  their  strong  men  were  sent  to  join  the 
"  confederates  from  many  nations "  in  an  inva- 
sion of  Gaul,     The  Gauls,  thus  menaced,  sought 

1  Lake  Leman. 


Helvetia  7 

Roman  aid ;    a  Roman  army  was  directed   to 

march  toward  the  homes  of  the  men  of  Thur- 

gau,    who,   suddenly   recalled    from    pursuit   of 

plunder,    hastened    under    a    valorous    young 

leader,  named  Diviko,  to  encounter  the  contact 

with 

Roman  legions.  On  the  banks  of  Lake  Rome. 
Leman,^  Diviko  achieved  a  brilliant  victory; 
the  Romans  lost  their  commander  —  the  consul 
Lucius  Cassius  —  were  forced  to  sue  for  quarter, 
and,  after  passing  disarmed  under  the  yoke 
erected  for  their  humiliation  by  command  of 
the  conqueror,  they  were  sent  over  the  moun- 
tains with  the  story  of  their  disgrace. 

The  victorious  Diviko  then  returned  to  Gaul, 
and,  uniting  his  forces  with  those  of  the  Cimbri, 
passed  into  Italy ;  but  Rome  summoned 
her  Consul  Marius  out  of  Africa,  and  in 
the  battles  of  Aix  and  Vercellae  (102-101  B.  c.) 
the  barbarian  hosts  suffered  such  overwhelm- 
ing defeats  that  the  survivors  from  their  ranks 
sought  hasty  refuge  amid  the  mountains.  The 
fugitives  settled  in  a  district  afterwards  divided 
into  the  four  cantons  of  Uri,  Schwyz,  Unter- 
walden,  and  Luzern,  where,  in  conjunction  with 
occupants  of  the  neighboring  valleys,  they  were 

1  Most  historians  name  the  shores  of  Lake  Leman  as  the 
theatre  of  this  battle,  but  Mommsen,  and  a  few  other  authori- 
ties place  it  on  the  borders  of  the  Garonne,  near  Santons. 


8  Annals  of  Switzerland 

known  as  Helvetians,  a  people  mentioned  by 
Caesar  as  inhabitants  of  twelve  towns  and  four 
hundred  villages. 

The  glory  gained  at  Lake  Leman,  and  glow- 
ing reports  from  the  adjacent  pasture-lands  of 
Gaul,  sufficed  to  stimulate  again  the  ambition 
of  this  stalwart  people,  and  Hordrich,  or  Orget- 
orix,  an  influential  man  among  them,  proposed 
that  the  entire  community  should  emigrate  and 
seek  possessions  in  that  more  fruitful  district. 
The  project  was  received  with  a  degree  of  favor 
Project  of  *^^^  insured  immediate  preparations  for 
orgetorix.  j^g  execution,  —  preparations  continued 
until  the  leader's  zeal  had  well-nigh  wrecked  the 
enterprise.  To  consummate  friendly  compacts 
with  princes  of  Gaul,  Orgetorix  bound  his 
daughter  by  a  marriage  contract  with  one  of  the 
number;  but  the  prospective  alliance  aroused 
suspicion  that  personal  aggrandizement  was  the 
principal  aim  of  the  Helvetian,  and  he  was  im- 
mediately summoned  before  a  popular  tribunal, 
to  answer  this  accusation.  Orgetorix  responded 
by  defiantly  arming  his  retainers,  whereupon 
the  entire  community  denounced  him  as  a 
traitor  and  demanded  his  death  by  fire.  To 
escape  this  fate  the  chief  committed  suicide. 

This  tragic  episode  did  not  divert  the  Helve- 
tians from  the  pursuit  of  their  purpose;  and, 


Helvetia  9 

after  three  years  spent  in  preparation  for  the 
emigration,  they  burned  their  houses  ,  ,     ^ 

<^  •'  Emigratioii 

to  preclude  all  thought  of  a  return,  and  snbjnga- 
and  carrying  provisions  for  three 
months  went  forth  under  the  guidance  of  the 
aged  Diviko.  With  their  allies  from  neighboring 
lands  they  were  computed  to  number  three 
hundred  and  sixty-eight  thousand,  of  whom 
ninety-two  thousand  were  warriors. 

This  exodus  occurred  in  the  year  60  B.  C, 
and  Caesar  was  then  in  Gaul.  He  first  encoun- 
tered the  Helvetians  near  Geneva,  where  an 
attack  upon  the  rear-guard  of  their  army  re- 
sulted in  victory  for  the  trained  legions  of 
Rome;  but,  instead  of  seeking  an  immediate 
engagement  with  the  entire  force  of  invaders, 
Caesar,  while  strengthening  his  own  army,  al- 
lowed the  enemy  to  advance,  until  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Saone  he  was  able  to  strike  so 
effective  a  blow  that  the  surviving  remnant  of 
the  Helvetian  host  were  powerless  to  resist  the 
decree  which  ordained  their  immediate  return 
to  their  desolated  land.  Caesar  annexed  their 
territory  to  Gallia  Celtica,  and  granted  to  the 
humbled  people  the  title  of  Roman  allies ;  but 
he  erected  on  Lake  Leman  the  new  fortress  of 
Noviodunum  (Nyon),  in  order,  from  that  point, 
as  from  other  strongholds,  soon  scattered  along 


lO  Annals  of  Switzerland 

their  frontiers,  to  keep  the  tribes  of  Helvetia 
under  the  Argus  eye  of  Rome. 

Heedless  of  the  subjugation  of  their  neigh- 
bors, the  sturdy  folk  in  Rhetia,  with  allies  along 

the  borders  of  the  Inn,  and  in  the 
The  Rbetlaiis. 

valleys   of  the  Tyrol,  pursued   their 

custom  of  plundering  travellers  across  their 
borders,  and,  secure  in  the  retreats  afforded  by 
their  mountain  passes,  often  descended  into 
Italy  for  purposes  of  pillage.  In  the  reign  of 
Augustus  these  incursions  grew  formidable,  and 
legions  under  the  successive  commands  of  Dru- 
sus  and  Tiberius  were  sent  against  the  intruders. 
After  an  obstinate  struggle  the  Rhetians  were 
subdued ;  their  district,  with  the  mountain  lands 
east,  was  included  in  the  empire  under  the  name 
of  Rhetian,  Norican,  and  Pannonian  provinces, 
and  permanent  Roman  garrisons  were  estab- 
lished to  secure  the  subjection  of  the  people. 
Although  thus  under  imperial  control,  the 
peasants  were  permitted  to  retain  their  simple 
The  Roman  ^^^s ;  and,  in  an  assembly  of  deputies 
Sway.  from    the    combined    districts,    they 

chose  their  own  magistrates,  and  decided  ques- 
tions of  common  interest.  Under  the  imme- 
diate successors  of  Augustus,  the  inhabitants 
of  Helvetia  paid  taxes  and  served  in  the  Roman 
armies,  as  good  and  loyal  subjects  of  the  em- 


Helvetia  II 

pire,  while  Aventicum,  their  seat  of  government, 
became  a  magnificent  city  with  institutions  simi- 
lar to  those  in  Italian  towns  of  the  period. 

In  the  year  70  A.  D.  the  emperor  Galba  was 
assassinated  in  Rome,  and  in  the  provinces 
Roman  officials  speedily  formed  leagues  for  the 
election  of  his  successor.  Before  the  people  of 
Helvetia  had  heard  of  Galba's  death,  Aulus 
Cecina,  their  governor,  sent  messengers  through- 
out every  district  to  command  allegiance  to 
VitelHus.  Believing  that  they  were  loyal  to 
their  emperor  in  their  act,  the  Helvetians  inter- 
cepted the  messengers,  and  armed  to  oppose 
the  governor.  Cecina  marched  against  them 
with  a  large  force,  sacked  Baden,  then  one  of 
their  principal  cities,  and  having  defeated  the 
insurgents  in  battle,  sold  many  into  slavery, 
and  commanded  the  immediate  execution  of 
Julius  Alpinus,  the  chief  man  in  the  community.^ 

With  the  tidings  of  their  defeat,  the  Helve- 

i  Fifteen  hundred  years  afterwards  this  inscription  is  said 
to  have  been  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Aventicum :  "  I  lie 
here ;  Julia  Alpinula ;  unfortunate  child  of  an  unfortunate 
father.  Priestess  of  the  goddess  Aventia,  my  prayers  failed  to 
avert  the  death  of  my  father ;  fate  had  decreed  that  he  should 
die  ignominiously.     I  lived  to  the  age  of  twenty-three." 

Although,  through  the  criticism  of  Lord  Mahon,  this  alleged 
memorial  has  been  denominated  a  forgery  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  Byron  accords  the  priestess  a  credulous  note  of  sym- 
pathetic admiration. 


12  Annals  of  Switzerland 

tians  first  heard  of  the  death  of  Galba,  and 
ambassadors  were  immediately  dispatched  to 
implore  pardon  for  an  unintentional  opposition 
to  legitimate  authority.  But  the  arrogant  sol- 
diers who  had  raised  Vitellius  to  the  throne, 
demanded  the  total  extirpation  of  the  race  of 
peasants  whose  loyalty  had  opposed  their  will ; 
and,  although  the  eloquent  pleading  of  the  Hel- 
vetian envoy  obtained  a  mitigation  of  the  pen- 
alty and  rescued  the  lives  of  the  offenders,  the 
punishment  ordained  terminated  their  history 
as  a  nation.  Their  country  was  incorporated 
with  the  province  of  Gaul,  and  the  distinctive 
name  of  Helvetia  was  legally  ignored.  Gradu- 
ally Roman  customs  were  introduced,  the  Latin 
language  encroached  to  some  extent  upon  the 
ancient  speech,  and,  under  the  mild  dominion 
of  Nerva,  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  the  Antonines, 
the  people,  turning  from  warlike  pursuits  to 
the  cultivation  of  their  land,  again  achieved 
prosperity. 


CHAPTER   II 

SUPREMACY  OF  THE   FRANKS,  IMPERIAL 
RULE   AND   ZERINGEN    DYNASTY 

A.  D.  200-I200. 

During  the  closing  years  of  the  Roman  suprem- 
acy, and  through  several  succeeding  decades, 
the  region  north  of  the  Alps  lay  open  to  occu- 
pation by  the  nomadic  tribes  who  were  pushing 
their  way  toward  Italy,  and  much  obscurity  rests 
upon  its  annals.  From  a  confusing  record  of 
conflicts  which  indicate  frequent  interchange 
of  realm  among  the  migrating  nations,  we 
emerge  in  the  year  500,  when  the  south- 
western portion  of  the  country  now  called 
Switzerland  belonged  to  the  Burgundians,  the 
northern  territory  was  shared  between  the 
Franks  and  the  Allemanni,  and  Rhetia  was 
claimed  by  the  Ostrogoths.  The  distinction 
between  the  languages  spoken  in  Switzerland 
has  been  traced  to  this  period,  when  the  people 
in  the  dominions  of  the  Allemanni  spoke  a 
Gothic  tongue,   and   those   under   Burgundian 


14  Annals  of  Switzerland 

rule  a  Gallo-Roman  dialect,   from  which  was 

developed   the   Provencal,    to  be  followed  by 

the  modern  French. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  century,  during 

an  inroad  upon  Gallic  territory,  the  Allemanni 

Divisions      met  the  army  of  Clovis,  King  of  the 

under 

Clovis.         Franks,  and   suffered  a  defeat  which 

implied  subjection;  and  during  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, by  the  dissolution  of  the  old  Burgundian 
kingdom  and  the  fall  of  the  empire  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  the  remaining  districts,  formerly 
occupied  by  the  three  nationalities,  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks. 

The  new  sovereign  divided  the  land  accord- 
ing to  the  languages  spoken  therein.  One 
division  was  joined  to  Swabia,  while  another, 
under  the  name  of  Little  Burgundy,  became  a 
part  of  Savoy.  The  population  included  the 
conquered  inhabitants,  ingrafted  colonies  from 
Rome,  and  remnants  of  the  various  Teutonic 
tribes  who  had  in  succession  occupied  the  dis- 
tricts. The  subjugated  people  became  serfs 
of  the  Gallic  lords,  and,  although  occasionally 
allowed  a  voice  in  matters  of  legislation,  they 
were  denied  the  privilege  of  bearing  arms. 
Introduction  Varied   legends  ascribe   the  entrance 

of  Christi-        ,  ^,     •      •       •  ,  ti 

anity.  of  Christianity  among  them  to  Beatus, 

in   the  first   century;   to   Lucius,   a  Rhetian, 


Supremacy  of  the  Franks  15 

in  the  third;  and  at  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century  to  members  of  the  Theban  Legion. 
Gallus,  a  disciple  of  St.  Columbanus,  had, 
previous  to  that  period,  established  his  her- 
mitage near  the  Lake  of  Constance,  where 
stands  to-day  the  sadly-modernized  convent  of 
St.  Gall;  and  Meinrod  had  built  his  cell,  lived 
in  poverty,  and  died  a  violent  death  on  the  spot 
marked  by  the  stately  Abbey  of  Einsiedeln, 
which  legendary  lore  designates  as  having 
been  consecrated  by  angels.  As  early  as 
843  was  founded  there  the  "record-chamber," 
the  nucleus  of  a  noted  library.  Religious 
institutions  multiplied  under  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Franks,  and  whoever  was  baptized,  had 
learned  a  prayer,  and  could  make  the  sign  of 
the  cross,  was  called  a  Christian,  even  though 
heathen  customs  and  superstitions  continued  to 
dominate  his  life. 

Laws  were  few  in  an  age  that  regarded  pro- 
tection of  property  for  the  individual  as  the 
ultimate  object  of  jurisdiction,  and  when  theft 
was  regarded  as  a  greater  crime  than  murder. 
A  form  of  trial  by  jury  was  occasionally  prac- 
tised, but  judgment  was  more  frequently  ren- 
dered through  the  medium  of  the  ordeal. 

Knowledge  of  letters  was  an  almost  exclusive 
endowment  of   the  clergy,    who,   through  this 


l6  Annals  of  Switzerland 

instrumentality,  were  enabled  to  acquire  wide 
political  as  well  as  spiritual  influence.  The 
monastery  of  St.  Gall  became  noted  as  a  centre 
of  learning  where  medieval  culture  attained  its 
zenith,  while  its  temporal  prosperity  was  at- 
tested by  the  possession  of  one  hundred  and 
sixty  thousand  acres  of  land. 

With  Charlemagne's  sovereignty  a  new  era 
dawned,  for  under  his  liberal  patronage  many 
charie-  institutions  for  popular  instruction 
magne.  were  founded.  To  his  bounty,  sym- 
bolized as  a  "fountain  of  intellectual  life," 
Zurich  attributes  her  first  schools,  and  other 
cities  included  within  the  boundaries  of  Switzer- 
land ascribe  their  early  literary  impulses  to  the 
stimulating  influence  of  the  first  sovereign  of 
the  "Holy  Roman  Empire." 

In  the  division  of  Charlemagne's  empire,  the 
Helvetian  territory  was  tossed  like  a  ball  from 
hand  to  hand,  until  caught  in  the  grasp  of  the 
newly-organized  German  monarchy.  Counts 
and  seignors  in  the  land  from  thenceforth  paid 
feudal  allegiance  to  the  Emperor,  but  in  his 
own  domain  each  was  allowed  absolute  control 
of  "  the  soil,  with  man,  beast,  and  tree. "  Upon 
these  vast  feudal  estates,  in  addition  to  the 
customary  tribute  of  fowls  and  eggs,  rendered 
to  the  seignor,  each  householder  was  assessed 


Supremacy  of  the  Franks  17 

for  an  annual  tax  of  a  tenth  of  his  crops  or 
other  wealth,  and  upon  the  death  of  the  father 
of  a  family  his  children  yielded  up  whatever 
had  been  his  most  valued  possession,  —  beast, 
garment,  or  furniture. 

The  seignors  in  adjacent  districts  were  usually 
at  feud  with  one  another,  unless  some  common 
danger  threatened,  when  individual  jealousies 
were  temporarily  controlled,  and  forces  were 
joined  for  mutual  protection. 

Gradually  the  inhabitants  of  the  open  coun- 
try gathered  in  villages,  for  which  a  religious 
house  or  a  baronial  mansion  served  as  Growth  of 
a  nucleus.  Each  village  enjoyed  a  ^^^' 
special  jurisdiction  under  its  vo^  or  bailiff; 
but  at  a  general  assembly,  held  in  the  open 
air,  all  important  questions  were  settled,  and 
any  person  who  possessed  "seven  feet  of  land 
before  or  behind  him  "  might  claim  a  voice  in 
this  council. 

In  the  tenth  century,  when  Magyar  hordes, 
from  the  north  and  east,  swept  with  barbaric 
fury  through  Germany,  the  Emperor  Henry  I. 
commanded  that  the  larger  villages  should  be 
walled,  that,  thus  protected,  they  might  serve  as 
places  of  refuge  for  peasants  of  the  neighboring 
country.  In  the  unsettled  state  of  the  empire, 
the  population  of  villages  thus  fortified  rapidly 


1 8  Annals  of  Switzerland 

increased,  and  when  an  imperial  decree  con- 
ferred special  privileges  upon  all  their  resi- 
dents who  were  not  bondsmen,  a  thrifty  burgher 
class  1  arose,  and  prospered. 

The  name  of  a  city  often  records  some  dis- 
tinctive characteristic  of  its  early  days,  as 
Schaffhausen  on  the  Rhine,  which  originated 
in  a  cluster  of  boathouses,  or  Schiffhausern,  and 
Luzern,  where  the  old  Lucerna,  or  light-house 
(now  called  the  Wasserthurtn),  indicates  the 
origin  of  the  city. 

Freemen  of  noble  birth  who  possessed  small 
landed  estates  were  chosen  members  of  the 
councils  in  these  villages,  and,  proud  of  a  posi- 
tion of  authority  in  the  "  Holy  Roman  Empire," 
they  assumed  the  name  of  "  patrician, "  — a  title 
retained  until  the  close  of  the  middle  ages. 

In  the  eleventh  century,  when  contests  be- 
tween the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  and  Pope 
Gregory  VII.  had  called  forth  the  bull  of  ex- 
communication that  freed  all  imperial  subjects 
from  their  oaths  of  allegiance,  a  Diet  held  at 
Forschew  deposed  Henry  and  declared  Rudolf 
of  Swabia  Emperor  of  Germany ;  Henry  return- 
ing from  his  enforced  pilgrimage  to  Rome, 
found  himself  crownless,  and  Rudolf  in  pos- 
session of  sovereign  power.     In  the  war  that 

1  Residents  o£  a  burg,  or  fortress. 


Zeringen  Dynasty  19 

ensued,  although  the  Pope  sent  a  consecrated 
crown  to  Rudolf,  fortune  declared  in  favor  of 
Henry;  Rudolf  was  slain  in  the  battle  of 
Merseburg,  by  the  hand  of  Godfrey  de  Bouil- 
lon, and  his  Swabian  dukedom  was  bestowed 
upon  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen,  son-in-law  of 
Henry  IV.  Rudolf's  son,  however,  continued 
the  war  until  his  death,  ten  years  later,  when  his 
claims  were  transferred  to  his  brother-in-law 
Berchthold  H.  of  Zeringen.  A  compromise  was 
then  effected,  by  which  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Helvetian  territory  was  given  to  Berchthold,  as 
a  fief  of  the  empire,  and,  during  several  genera- 
tions, dukes  of  his  family,  known  as  the  "thirty 
lords  of  Zeringen,"  retained  the  sovereignty. 

It  was  during  the  period  of  Zeringen  rule 
that  the  name  of  the  free  men  of  Schwyz  came 
for  the   first   time    into    prominence.    The  Free 

^  Men  of 

In  a  sheltered  district  upon  Lake  schwyz. 
Luzem  dwelt  these  descendants  of  the  Helve- 
tians, who  had  continued  to  exercise,  unmo- 
lested, all  the  privileges  of  a  free  community 
throughout  the  stormy  years  in  which  their 
land  had  been  passed  from  sovereign  to  sove- 
reign. Although  they  recognized  the  Emperor 
of  Germany  as  their  feudal  superior,  these  peas- 
ants had  remained  unrestricted  in  their  choice 
of  the  Ammann  who  presided  over  their  local 


20  Annals  of  Switzerland 

courts  of  justice,  and  had  acknowledged  no 
foreign  obligation  beyond  the  payment  of 
imperial  tribute-money. 

Ignorant  of  the  fact  that  Henry  11.  had 
donated  large  tracts  of  land,  adjacent  to  their 
own,  for  the  enrichment  of  monasteries,  or  as 
rewards  to  seignors,  these  shepherds  of  Schwyz 
came  into  unforeseen  conflict  with  the  Abbot  of 
Einsiedeln,  whose  flocks  were  feeding  upon 
their  mountains.  The  Abbot  claimed  as  much 
as  he  chose  of  the  uninclosed  territory,  and 
appealed  for  support  to  the  head  of  the  empire, 
whose  decision  in  favor  of  the  ecclesiastic 
apprised  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley  that 
their  allegiance  was  no  guarantee  of  protec- 
tion. Rejecting,  thenceforth,  all  obligations 
imposed  by  imperial  mandate,  they  declared, 
"  We  have  no  need  of  an  emperor  if  he  cannot 
secure  our  rights,"  and  having  cemented  a 
defensive  alliance  with  their  neighbors  of  Uri 
and  Unterwalden,  they  defied  the  imperial  au- 
thority. Despite  anathemas  and  decrees  from 
Emperor  and  from  Pope,  the  attitude  of  hostil- 
ity toward  Einsiedeln  was  maintained;  priests 
were  compelled  to  conduct  religious  services, 
though  papal  sanction  was  denied,  and  during 
an  age  of  universal  servitude  the  brave  peasants 
of  Schwyz  preserved  a  prosperous  independence. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE   LEAGUE   OF   THREE   LANDS 
12OO-1315. 

After  the  extinction  of  the  house  of  Zeringen, 
the  entire  territory,  formerly  subject  to  their 
control,  was  ruled  by  the  counts  and  seignors 
whose  castles  clung  to  the  mountain  sides  or 
dotted  the  level  country.  According  to  Watte- 
ville,  there  were  in  the  thirteenth  century  no 
less  than  fifty  counts,  one  hundred  and  fifty 
barons,  and  one  thousand  noble  families  within 
the  confines  of  modern  Switzerland.  Promi- 
nent among  these  petty  sovereigns  were  three 
ecclesiastical  princes,  —  the  Bishop  of  Chur, 
the  Abbot  of  St.  Gall,  and  the  Abbess  of 
Sackingen,  —  and  the  Counts  of  Kyburg,  Rap- 
perswyl  and  Hapsburg  in  the  list  of  temporal 
lords.  The  last-named  nobles  owned  only  a 
small  territory  west  of  the  Steinen,  but  Count 
Albert  III.  secured  the  office  of  vogtship  or 
imperial  bailiff  over  a  larger  district  than  any 
member  of  his  family  had  previously  controlled, 


22  Annals  of  Switzerland 

and  his  son  Rudolf  obtained  the  advocacy  of  a 
region  embracing  the  three  districts  of  Uri, 
Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden.  His  duties  in  this 
office  included  those  of  the  president  of  crim- 
inal tribunals,  arbitrator  in  civil  dissensions, 
guardian  of  the  highway,  and  representative  of 
the  people  at  the  imperial  court. 

In  12 17  the  intervention  of  the  advocate 
Rudolf  I.  secured  a  temporary  cessation  of 
the  prolonged  hostilities  between  Schwyz  and 
Einsiedeln;  but  when  Rudolf  II.  claimed 
hereditary  authority  to  govern  the  district,  and 
attempted  to  restrict  the  liberty  of  the  peasants, 
the  three  valley-communities  sought  imperial 
sanction  in  their  defence  of  privileges  exercised 
by  their  ancestors.  In  response  to  the  appeal 
from    Uri,    a  formal    release   from    Hapsburg 

Rule  of        over-lordship   was   granted    in    1231, 

Hapsbnrg 

Lords.         with  a  special  charter  of  franchises, 

and  in  1240  a  document,  addressed  "to  all  the 

inhabitants  in  the  valley  of  Swites,"  gave  that 

district  also  deliverance  from  the  jurisdiction 

of  the  counts  of  Hapsburg,  and  immunity  from 

all  but  imperial  taxation.     But  the  domineering 

knight  who  continued  to  claim  the  authority  of 

an  advocate  in  the  territory  practically  ignored 

the  imperial  charters,  and  compelled  obedience 

to  his  arbitrary  decree  from  the  peasants  of 


The  League  of  Three  Lands         23 

Schwyz  and  Uri,  as  well  as  in  Unterwalden, 
where  he  possessed  estates.  In  protestation 
against  this  bondage,  the  men  of  the  three  dis- 
tricts in  1245  concluded,  by  a  verbal  compact, 
their  first  defensive  league. 

As  a  means  of  establishing  his  authority  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Luzern,  Rudolf  erected 
there  a  castle;  but  this  was  destroyed  five 
years  later,  and  for  half  a  century  no  fortress 
walls  marred  the  Arcadian  landscape.  During 
the  contests  between  Frederick  II.  and  Inno- 
cent IV.  the  Hapsburgers  sided  with  the  Pope, 
and  the  men  of  the  forest  cantons  took  the 
part  of  the  Emperor;  but  in  the  decline  of 
Frederick's  authority,  the  Hapsburgs,  like 
other  nobles  of  the  empire,  found  opportunity 
for  their  own  aggrandizement,  and  in  1273 
Count  Rudolf  III.  was  elected  Emperor  of 
Germany. 

For  a  score  of  years  the  imperial  crown  had 
been  loosely  controlled  by  various  factions, 
who,  by  turns,  bestowed  it  upon  one  Rudolf 
foreign  candidate  or  another,  until,  Hapsbnrg. 
weary  of  the  existing  confusion,  yet  jealous  of 
their  own  authority,  the  electors  sought  a  man 
strong  enough  to  punish  criminals,  with  whom 
the  country  was  flooded,  yet  weak  enough  to 
need  for  every  mandate  the  sanction  of  the 


24  Annals  of  Switzerland 

princes.  Their  desires  were  bluntly  defined  by 
the  Bishop  of  Olmutz,  who  wrote  to  the  Pope : 
"  They  wish  to  obtain,  through  the  grace  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  a  gracious  emperor,  — through  the 
wisdom  of  the  Son  of  God,  a  wise  emperor;  but 
they  ignore  the  first  person  in  the  Trinity,  and 
power  is  their  abhorrence." 

Rudolf's  rival  for  the  imperial  honors  was 
Ottacar  of  Bohemia,  a  war  with  whom,  follow- 
ing the  election,  resulted  in  the  acquisition 
by  the  Hapsburgs  of  Styria,  Carniola,  and 
Carinthia.  These  provinces  Rudolf  bestowed 
upon  his  two  sons,  whereupon  Albert,  the  elder 
son,  assumed  the  title  of  "  Duke  of  Austria. " 
Rudolf's  elevation  is  said  to  have  been  largely 
due  to  the  influence  of  Werner,  Archbishop  of 
Mentz,  who  had  received  favors  at  the  hands  of 
the  Count  of  Hapsburg,  for  which  he  promised 
recompense.  In  order  to  insure  the  necessary 
votes  for  Rudolf,  the  Archbishop  hinted  to 
the  electors,  who  were  chiefly  unmarried  men, 
that  his  candidate  had  six  marriageable  daugh- 
ters; whereupon  the  election  was  immediate 
and  unanimous. 

But  the  Count  of  Hapsburg  had  not  so 
favorably  impressed  all  ecclesiastics,  for  the 
Bishop  of  Basle  is  reported  to  have  exclaimed, 
when   he  heard  of   the  election,  "  Lord  God ! 


The  League  of  Three  Lands         25 

set  thyself  fast  upon  thy  throne,  else  surely  this 
Rudolf  will  pluck  thee  down  from  it. " 

Rudolf's  imperial  administration  of  eighteen 
years,  popular  and  widely  equitable,  induced  a 
confiding  submission  to  legitimate  authority. 
But  although  the  Emperor  recognized  the  char- 
ter of  Uri,  he  refused  to  confirm  the  privileges 
claimed  by  Schwyz,  and  two  weeks  after  his 
death  the  men  of  that  community  joined  the 
patriots  of  Uri  and  Unterwalden  in  a 

"  Perpetual  Alliance  "  for  mutual  aid  in  uai  Aiu- 

.     .  .  anceor 

resistmg  oppressions.    August  i,  129 1,    "Bundes- 

deputies  from  the  three  districts  signed  *'^**-" 
the   Bitndesbrief,    which   embodied    in  written 
form  the  terms  of  the  verbal  contract  of  1245. 

This  Latin  Bundesbrief,  still  preserved  in 
the  archives  of  Schwyz,  records  the  formal 
inauguration  of  the  oldest  free  state  in  the 
world.  With  the  motto  "  All  for  one,  and  each 
for  all,"  it  united  the  members  of  the  league 
against  any  "who  should  use  violence  toward 
them,  or  cause  injury  to  one  or  to  all."  While 
recognizing  the  duty  of  allegiance  to  the  Em- 
peror, the  communities  declared  a  resolution  to 
preserve  their  prerogatives  in  matters  of  legis- 
lation, and  in  case  dissensions  should  arise, 
they  claimed  perfect  freedom  in  the  choice  of 
arbitrators. 


26  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Upon  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Rudolf,  his 
son  Albert  assumed  the  imperial  crown,  with- 
Aibertof  out  awaiting  the  action  of  a  diet;  but 
Austria.  received  proof  of  his  unpopularity 
when  Adolf  of  Nassau  was  chosen  head  of  the 
empire.  The  new  sovereign  possessed  little 
influence  among  princes,  but  he  confirmed  the 
imperial  franchises  of  Uri  and  Schwyz,  and  the 
three  forest  districts  (Waldstatten)  embraced 
his  cause.  Thereupon  Albert,  conciliating 
some  of  the  electors,  kindled  a  partisan  war, 
in  which  Adolf  was  defeated  and  slain ;  Albert, 
succeeding  to  his  authority,  refused  to  recognize 
the  franchises  claimed  by  the  Waldstatten,  and 
by  imperious  and  unscrupulous  acts  thoroughly 
alienated  the  people.  Although  there  is  no 
authentic  record  of  a  direct  attack  upon  the 
liberties  of  the  land,  yet  a  host  of  legends, 
bearing  reference  to  tyrannical  aggressions, 
have  centred  around  the  period,  and  mingle  so 
indissolubly  with  the  history  of  the  age  that 
they  demand  narration. 

According  to  these  stories,  Albert  sent  an 

Austrian  official  to  exercise  authority  in  the 

j^  opprearions  districts  of  the  Waldstatten,  and  when 

T~  of  Imperial 

Bailiffs.  the  allied  peasants  claimed  the  right 
to  demand  in  his  place  an  imperial  bailiff, 
Hermann  Gesler,  and  Berengen  of  Landenberg, 


The  League  of  Three  Lands        27 

contrary  to  all  former  usages,  took  up  their 
abode  in  the  land.  Gesler  built  a  fortress, 
which  he  called  "Uri's  Restraint,"  while 
Landenberg  located  himself  with  equal  secu- 
rity in  Unterwalden,  and  both  by  arbitrary 
and  tyrannical  rule  violated  the  franchises,  and 
exasperated  the  people.  The  taxes  were  in- 
creased, the  smallest  offence  severely  punished, 
and  the  peasants  continually  insulted. 

In  Landenberg' s  district  of  Unterwalden 
lived  Arnold  of  Melchthal,  whose  punishment 
for  some  trifling  offence  was  the  confiscation  of 
his  oxen.  The  official  sent  to  seize  them  jeer- 
ingly  said,  "If  peasants  wish  for  bread  they 
may  draw  the  plough  themselves."  Stung  by 
this  insult,  Arnold  offered  resistance,  and  broke 
the  fingers  of  one  of  the  men.  He  then  fled  to 
the  mountains  to  escape  the  bailiff's  vengeance; 
but  Landenberg  caused  the  arrest  of  his  aged 
father,  whose  eyes  were  put  out  in  expiation  of 
the  son's  offence.  "That  puncture,"  says  an 
old  chronicler,  "went  so  deep  into  many  a  heart 
that  numbers  resolved  to  die  rather  than  leave 
it  unrequited. " 

In  the  village  of  Steinen,  the  freeman 
Werner  Stauffacher  built  a  house  whose  com- 
fort aroused  the  jealousy  of  Gesler,  and  the 
bailiff's  comment,  "Shall  a  vile  peasant  build 


28  Annals  of  Switzerland 

himself  a  house  without  permission  from  his 
lord  ? "  was  quoted  throughout  the  region. 
Urged  onward  by  his  heroic  wife,  Stauffacher 
joined  Arnold  of  Melchthal  and  Walther  Fiirst 
of  Uri  in  a  solemn  oath  to  free  the  land  from 
its  tyrants;  and  in  the  meadow  of  Riitli,  on  the 
shore  of  Lake  Luzcrn,  the  three  men  held  mid- 
night consultations,  when  each  brought  assur- 
ances from  the  persecuted  communities  they 
represented,  that  death  was  more  desirable  than 
bondage.  On  the  night  of  November  ii,  1307, 
each  leader  guided  to  the  trysting-place  ten 
trusted  men,  to  whom  their  heroic  purposes 
were  revealed;  and  at  sunrise,  raising  their 
hands  to  heaven,  all  joined  in  an  oath  which 
consecrated  them  to  the  service  of  freedom. 
Then,  appointing  New  Year's  night,  1308,  for 
the  accomplishment  of  their  enterprise,  they 
returned  to  their  homes. 

Meanwhile,  Gesler,  suspicious  of  the  fidelity 
of  the  people  in  his  district,  had  ordered  a  pole 
to  be  erected  in  the  village  of  Altorf,  upon 
which  the  ducal  cap  of  Austria  was  fastened, 
that  homage  to  this  symbol  of  authority  might  be 
publicly  rendered.  For  disregard  of  this  decree, 
wmiam  William  Tell,  the  son-in-law  of  Walther 
Teu.  Fiirst,  and  one  of  the  oath-bound  men 

of   Riitli,   was    seized   and  carried   before   the 


The  League  of  Three  Lands        29 

bailiff.  His  reputation  as  a  marksman  was 
widespread,  and,  making  his  skill  the  instru- 
ment of  punishment,  Gesler  commanded  him  to 
shoot  an  apple  from  the  head  of  his  son.  The 
amazing  deed  was  successfully  accomplished; 
but  a  second  arrow  in  the  archer's  quiver 
aroused  inquiry,  and  upon  receiving  a  promise 
of  pardon.  Tell  incautiously  revealed  his  reso- 
lution to  shoot  Gesler  had  his  son  been  the  first 
victim.  The  terrified  bailiff,  declaring  that  his 
promise  secured  the  life  but  not  the  freedom 
of  the  marksman,  commanded  the  immediate 
arrest  of  Tell,  who,  securely  bound,  was  placed 
in  the  boat  awaiting  Gesler's  return  to  his 
castle  at  Kiissnacht.  Half-way  across  the  lake 
a  storm  arose,  the  boat  became  unmanageable 
by  the  boatmen,  and  the  prisoner,  known  to  be 
a  superior  seaman,  was  unbound,  and  ordered 
to  take  the  helm.  Steering  the  craft  toward  a 
rocky  shelf  of  land  that  protruded  at  the  base 
of  the  Axenberg,  Tell  suddenly  seized  his  bow, 
and  sprang  ashore,  while  the  boat,  rebounding, 
carried  Gesler  and  his  men  far  out  upon  the. 
lake.  They  succeeded  in  landing  when  the 
storm  had  abated;  but  Tell  meanwhile  had 
sought  a  hiding-place,  from  whence,  as  the 
bailiff  passed,  was  sent  forth  a  well-aimed 
arrow,  that  pierced  the  tyrant's  heart. 


30  Annals  of  Switzerland 

So  runs  the  tale,  and  with  it  belongs  the 
legend,  current  in  Switzerland,  that  Tell  and 
the  three  men  of  Riitli  are  asleep  in  the  moun- 
tains, but  will  awake  to  the  rescue  of  their 
land  should  tyranny  ever  again  enchain  it.^ 

The  ancient  chroniclers  proceed  to  relate 
that  at  midnight  on  New  Year's  eve,  1308,  a 
Capture  of       girl    in   Landenberg's    castle    threw 

Lit  ndfttilwyp  's 

Castle.  a  rope  to  her   lover,  waiting  below 

her  window,  and  by  this  device  twenty  of  the 

^  Although  the  pitiless  criticism  of  modern  historical  work 
has  forced  the  exploits  of  Tell  into  the  domain  of  the  mythi- 
cal, yet  a  degree  of  credence  is  given  to  the  story  that  may 
render  interesting  a  summary  of  evidence  in  favor  of  its  truth. 

As  early  as  1307  a  religious  service  is  claimed  to  have  been 
instituted  in  Switzerland  to  commemorate  the  deed  of  the 
hero,  and  in  the  following  year  a  chapel  was  erected  on  the 
spot  where  he  was  reputed  to  have  landed  from  Gesler's  boat. 
This  chapel  was  dedicated  in  the  presence  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-four  persons  said  to  have  known  Tell  personally.  The 
history  of  the  marksman  is  given  in  the  chronicle  of  Klingen- 
berg  that  bears  record  through  the  fourteenth  century  ;  in  an 
ancient  "  Ballad  of  Tell  "  preserved  in  the  archives  of  Sarnen ; 
in  the  "  Chronicle  of  Russ  "  which  bears  the  date  of  1482  ;  and 
in  the  "  Chronicle  of  Eglof  "  of  the  fifteenth  century.  His 
deeds  are  recorded  by  Tschudi  in  1570,  and  allusion  is  made 
to  them  as  historical  by  other  early  writers.  At  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century  doubts  of  the  authenticity  of  the  stories  were 
first  circulated,  and  in  1760  the  book  of  a  Bernese  named 
Freudenberger,  was  publicly  burned  in  Uri,  for  denial  of  the 
historical  accuracy  of  current  accounts  of  Tell's  life.  But 
other  works  were  soon  written  to  spread  the  awakened  incre- 
dulity; and  Voltaire  contributed  to  the  scepticism  by  his  com- 
ment, "  Ces  histoires  des  pommes  sont  toujours  suspectes." 


The  League  of  Three  Lands        31 

oath-bound  men  of  Riitli  were  secretly  drawn 
within  the  walls  of  Rotzberg.  In  the  early 
morning  twenty  of  their  confederates,  who 
came  with  customary  gifts  to  the  bailiff,  were 
invited  within  the  gates,  when,  drawing  out 
concealed  pikeheads,  they  fixed  them  upon  their 
staves,  and  sounded  a  call  that  brought  re- 
inforcements from  neighboring  hiding-places. 
Almost  without  resistance,  the  stronghold  of 
the  tyrant  was  captured;  but  Landenberg  and 
his  men  were  suffered  to  go  free  upon  taking 
an  oath  to  quit  the  country  forever.  The  spirit 
of  liberty  was  now  fully  aroused;  Gesler's  "  Re- 
straint "  and  other  fortresses  were  demolished, 
and  the  people  in  the  three  districts  bound 
themselves  by  the  oath  of  Riitli. 

Under  Albert's  direction  was  compiled  "The 

Terrier,"  a  kind  of  Doomsday  Book   for   the 

Austrian  provinces.       It   enumerated  u^^ 

the  estates  of  the  Hapsburgers,  and  Terrier." 

recorded  the  quit-rents,   dues,   etc.,  for  which 

the  tenants  were  liable.     The  inventory  for  a 

similar  record  was  begun   in  Switzerland,  but 

was  interrupted  by  the  death  of  the  Emperor, 

who,    while  returning  from  a  confer-   Aaaaasina- 

.  tlonof 

ence   at   Baden,   was  assassmated    by  Albert. 

his  nephew,  John  of  Swabia.     On  the  banks  of 


32  Annals  of  Switzerland 

the  Reuss,  at  Windisch,  Albert  became  acci- 
dentally separated  from  his  suite,  and  John 
found  his  opportunity  for  revenge  upon  the 
relative  who  had  defrauded  him  of  his  paternal 
estates.  By  the  aid  of  Walter  of  Eschenbach 
and  Rudolf  of  Balm/  the  fatal  assault  was  made, 
and  the  royal  victim  was  left  to  die  in  the  arms 
of  a  peasant  woman. 

The  assassins  soon  realized  that  they  had 
been  deceived  in  the  expectation  of  support 
after  this  bloody  deed,  and  safety  was  sought 
by  flight,  while  the  terrified  land  offered  no 
resistance  to  the  vengeance  of  the  Emperor's 
adherents,  who,  believing  that  a  formidable 
league  existed,  punished  all  suspected  of  com- 
plicity. Castles  were  burned  to  the  ground, 
and  a  thousand  victims  perished.  Agnes,  the 
daughter  of  Albert,  is  said  to  have  witnessed  the 
executions,  and  her  exclamation,  "  Now  I  bathe 
in  May  dew ! "  interprets  the  spirit  with  which 
the  house  of  Austria  pursued  the  unfortunate 
confederates  through  many  succeeding  years. 

On  the  accession  of  the  new  emperor,  Henry 
of  Luxemburg,  the  freemen  of  Schwyz  opposed 
the  work  of  the  officials  charged  with  the  sur- 
vey of  their  land  for  "  The  Terrier, "  and  Henry 
confirmed  to  Schwyz  and  Uri  the  franchises 
1  Ulric  de  Baum  is  the  name  given  by  some  historians. 


The  League  of  Three  Lands        23 

covered  by  their  earlier  charters,  and  granted 
to  Unterwalden  all  privileges  enjoyed  under 
his  predecessors.  But  failing  thus  to  keep  a 
promise  to  the  Hapsburgers  for  the  recogni- 
tion of  their  claims  in  the  districts,  he  incited 
the  dukes  of  Austria  to  efforts  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  prerogatives  which  they  regarded  as 
hereditary. 

In   1313    Henry   of    Luxemburg    died,    and 
Frederick,  the  eldest  son  of  Albert  of  Austria, 
opposed  Louis  of  Bavaria  as  candidate  contests 
for  imperial  honors;  Frederick,  being  ^periai 
the  first  to  secure  recognition,  deter-  ^^^"^ 
mined  to  regain  the  inheritance  of  his  family 
in   the    three   valley   districts;    and   when   an 
attack  made  by  the  men  of  Schwyz  upon  the 
domains  of  their  ancient  enemy,  the  Abbot  of 
Einsiedeln,  afforded  a  pretence  for  interference, 
he  charged  his  brother,  the  gloomy  Leopold  of 
Austria,  with  the  execution  of  the  project. 

In  1 31 5,  prepared  "to  tread  the  boors  under 
foot,"  and  carrying  with  him  wagonloads  of 
cordage,  wherewith  to  hang  the  ring- 
leaders among  the  confederates,  Leo- 
pold proceeded  to  Baden,  where  he  held  a  coun- 
cil of  war.  A  triple  attack  was  concerted. 
The  main  force,  fifteen  or  twenty  thousand 
strong,  was  ordered  to  advance  from  Zug 
3 


34  Annals  of  Switzerland 

under  Leopold  himself,  while  Count  Otho  of 
Strassburg,  with  four  thousand  men,  was  to 
march  over  the  Briinig,  and  one  thousand  troops 
from  Luzern,  crossing  the  lake,  would  join  the 
others  at  Unterwalden. 

Confident  of  victory,  the  Duke's  division  ad- 
vanced in  stalwart  battalions,  their  leader  the 
ideal  of  chivalry.  The  confederates,  concluding 
hasty  terms  of  alliance  with  Glarus,  Urseren, 
and  Interlaken,  scornfully  rejected  the  offered 
terms  of  peace,  stationed  themselves  by  com- 
mand of  Rudolf  Reding  on  a  ridge  of  the  Sattel, 
offered  their  prayers,  and  awaited  the  enemy. 
At  early  dawn,  on  the  15th  of  November,  the 
Battle  of  narrow  defile  of  Morgarten,  where  the 
Morgarten.  ascent  into  the  uplands  of  Schwyz 
begins,  was  crowded  with  Austrian  troops. 
Tradition  relates  that  fifty  men  of  Schwyz,  who 
had  returned  from  banishment  on  this  eventful 
day,  but  were  denied  admittance  into  the  ranks 
of  their  countrymen,  ascended  another  ridge 
of  the  mountain,  and  hurled  down  rocks  upon 
the  advancing  hosts.  Into  the  confusion  thus 
created  rushed  the  confederate  bands,  striking 
down  with  their  heavy  clubs  Austrian  knight 
and  soldier,  many  of  whom  were  trodden  to 
death  by  their  own  cavalry.  There  was  no 
room  for  retreat  except  in  the  universal  flight 


The  League  of  Three  Lands        2  5 

which  ensued  after  an  hour  and  a  half  of  des- 
perate strife.  The  invading  army  left  the 
flower  of  their  nobility  upon  the  field,  and 
Leopold,  escaping  with  difficulty,  reached 
Winterthur,  says  the  chronicle,  "pale  and  in 
despair." 

The  following  morning,  confederate  troops 
marched  to  meet  the  men  from  Luzern,  who 
had  landed  at  Biirgenstadt,  and  easily  forced 
them  to  retreat  to  their  ships.  The  victors 
then  turned  toward  a  third  detachment  of  the 
enemy,  who  had  advanced  across  the  Briinig, 
but  who,  learning  of  the  defeat  of  their  associ-, 
ates,  hastily  retreated.  In  a  chapel  dedicated 
to  St.  Jacob,  on  the  confines  of  the  canton  of 
Zug,  the  Swiss  erected  a  memorial  of  their 
victory,  and  here,  on  the  anniversary  of  "the 
glorious  battle  of  Morgarten,"  a  commemora- 
tive service  is  annually  held.  A  few  weeks 
after  the  battle  (Dec.  9,   13 15),  deputies  from 

the  Waldstatten  met  at  Brunnen,^  and  The 

Bnumen 

concluded  a  new  treaty  of  alliance,  by  "Bund." 
which  obedience  to  the  seignors  of  the  districts 
was  still  yielded,  unless  it  should  conflict  with 
duty  toward  the  confederacy,  loyalty  to  which 
was  forever  to  dominate  all  other  claims. 

1  At  Brunnen  is  this  inscription  :  "  Hier  wurde  der  ewige 
Bund  geschworen,  Anno  131 5,  die  Grundfeste  der  Schwyz." 


36  Annals  of  Switzerland 

The  confederates  appealed  to  Louis  IV.  for 
the  removal  of  the  ban  launched  against  them 
by  Frederick,  and  an  imperial  decree  annulled 
all  prerogatives  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  in 
the  Waldstatten.  Involved  in  wars  for  the 
compensating  possession  of  the  imperial  throne, 
the  Duke  of  Austria  made  peace  with  the  con- 
federates, in  1 3 18,  renouncing  all  claims  in 
their  territory  except  over  hereditary  estates  of 
the  Hapsburgs;  and  the  three  communities, 
treating  with  Austria  on  equal  terms,  cove- 
nanted to  enter  no  alliance  antagonistic  to  their 
ancient  enemy.  This  treaty,  annually  renewed, 
preserved  peace  until  the  year  1323. 


CHAPTER   IV 

GROWTH    OF   THE   CONFEDERACY 
1332-1376 

The  protective  strength  of  the  three  valley- 
communities,  in  an  age  of  general  oppression, 
tempted  neighboring  towns  to  seek 
admission  to  their  league,  and  entrance 
was  first  granted  to  Luzern.  The  burghers  of 
that  city  had  enjoyed  many  franchises  under  the 
mild  government  of  Murbach  Abbey,  until  finan- 
cial embarrassments  had  compelled  the  sale,  to 
Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  of  certain  rights  of  feu- 
dal jurisdiction  over  the  territory.  When  the 
Duke  by  an  increase  of  taxes,  forcible  enlist- 
ment of  troops,  and  other  acts  of  arbitrary 
despotism,  rendered  his  authority  oppressive, 
Luzern  was  stimulated  to  throw  off  the  recently- 
imposed  yoke,  and,  as  a  preliminary  step,  con- 
cluded with  the  Waldstatten  a  treaty  for  twenty 
years. 

Upon  learning  of  this  alliance,  the  Hapsburg 
nobility  in  Aargau  declared  war,  in  the  name  of 


38  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Austria,  while  within  Luzern  the  aristocratic 
families  united  in  a  conspiracy  for  opening  the 
gates  to  the  enemy's  forces.  A  legend  tells 
how  a  boy  who  chanced  to  overhear  their  plans 
was  discovered  by  the  conspirators  and  made 
prisoner,  but,  regarded  as  too  young  to  betray 
them,  he  was  released  after  having  taken  an 
oath  to  reveal  the  secret  to  no  man.  Passing 
from  the  custody  of  his  captors  into  a  hall 
where  some  burghers  were  assembled,  the  boy 
related  his  story  in  a  loud  voice  to  the  stove, 
easily  attracting  the  attention  of  the  citizens, 
who,  through  this  timely  warning,  were  able 
to  arrest  the  leaders  in  the  plot.  Before  sun- 
rise of  the  following  day  the  giant  peaks  of 
Pilatus  and  Rigi,  which  shadow  the  ancient 
city,   were  watch-towers   for  a  free 

1333. 

people.  The  government  of  Luzern 
was  taken  from  the  families  who  had  controlled 
it  under  the  Duke  of  Austria,  and  was  vested 
in  a  council  of  three  hundred  burghers. 

Zurich  next  joined  the  confederacy.  That 
city,  the  Roman  "  Turicum, "  endowed  by  the 
early  Carlovingians  with  privileges 
that  insured  its  rapid  growth,  had 
become  eminent  both  for  commercial  and  in- 
tellectual activity.  Its  minster,  enlarged  and 
enriched  by  Charlemagne,   dates  backward   to 


Growth  of  the  Confederacy  39 

the  period  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
by  the  Theban  legion.  The  oldest  Christian 
legend  of  the  country  tells  how  two  members 
of  the  Theban  band,  Felix  and  Regula,  refused 
to  sacrifice  to  the  gods,  and  were  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Romans.  After  prolonged  suffer- 
ings the  martyrs  were  executed,  but  picking  up 
their  severed  heads,  they  walked  with  them  to 
the  summit  of  a  hill  in  the  vicinity  of  Zurich, 
and  buried  themselves  there  in  a  spot  now  con- 
secrated to  the  patron  saints  of  the  city.  In 
853,  Louis  the  German  donated  extensive  lands 
to  the  convent  of  Felix  and  Regula,  of  which 
his  daughter  Hildegarde  was  abbess,  and  the 
district  was  granted  exemption  from  all  juris- 
diction save  that  of  the  king. 

The  Emperor,  Frederick  II.,  made  Zurich  a 
free  city,  and  in  the  thirteenth  century  it  be- 
came a  centre  of  intellectual  life,  where  minne- 
singers and  scholars  received  liberal  patronage. 
During  the  interregnum  new  privileges  were 
acquired,  which  were  confirmed  by  Albert  of 
Austria.  The  government  was  vested  in  the 
hands  of  a  council  elected  by  the  citizens,  but 
official  caprice  obtained  frequent  opportunity  for 
indulgence  through  the  wide  liberty  of  action 
allowed  in  unforeseen  circumstances.  Com- 
plaints of  oppression  were  rife,  when  a  member 


40  Annals  of  Switzerland 

of  the  council,  named  Rudolf  Brun,  being  at 
variance  with  his  own  party,  instigated  the 
citizens  to  demand  an  account  of  the  public 
moneys.  The  council  delayed  action,  regarding 
the  manifested  discontent  as  only  a  transient 
mood  of  the  populace ;  but  the  impression  that 
their  deputies  had  been  trifled  with  spread  among 
the  burghers,  the  council  chamber  was  besieged, 
and  the  members  with  difficulty  effected  an 
escape.  Brun  was  then  appointed  burgomaster 
for  life,  and  a  new  constitution  gave  the  arti- 
sans of  the  town  a  voice  in  its  government. 

But  exiled  members  of  the  old  council  medi- 
tated vengeance,  and  plotted  at  Rapperswyl  to 
regain  possession  of  the  city  through  a  mid- 
night massacre.  Again  the  legends  tell  of  a 
listening  apprentice  and  a  convenient  stove. 
From  behind  that  familiar  household  mechan- 
ism, which  would  seem  to  merit  immortal  honor 
in  Switzerland,  the  boy  overheard  schemes 
which,  when  reported  to  Rudolf  Brun,  caused 
him  to  don  his  armor  in  hot  haste;  while  alarm 
bells  summoned  the  citizens  to  arms,  and  men, 
women,  and  children  joined  in  pursuit  of  the 
retreating  enemy.  Few  of  the  conspirators 
escaped  punishment,  and  Count  John  of  Rap- 
perswyl, for  his  support  of  their  cause,  suffered 
the  devastation  of  his  lands,  while  even  adja- 


Growth  of  the  Confederacy  41 

cent  Austrian  territory  was  ravaged,  in  the 
frenzy  for  retaliation  that  ensued.  Fearing  the 
revenge  of  the  Duke,  Zurich  then  sought  alli- 
ance with  the  Waldstatten,  and  in  1351  became 
fifth  member  of  the  confederation.  The  city 
differed  from  other  allies  in  the  reservation  of 
a  right  to  form  private  alliances,  provided  the 
terms  made  were  subordinate  to  those  of  the 
confederate  bond. 

Although  the  conflict  with  Austria  was  con- 
tinued, succeeding  years  were  marked  by  in- 
creased strength  in  the  confederacy, 
through  the  admission  of  new  mem- 
bers. Glarus,  a  dependency  of  the  monastery 
of  Sackingen,  over  which  the  Hapsburgers 
claimed  the  authority  of  advocates,  had  been 
summoned  to  aid  Austria  in  the  execution  of 
vengeance  upon  Zurich  and  the  Waldstatten; 
but,  animated  by  sympathy  with  the  conduct  of 
the  confederates,  the  burghers  of  Glarus  refused 
obedience  to  the  Duke,  and  despatched  two 
hundred  of  their  young  men  to  the  assistance 
of  the  threatened  city.  Joining  the  army  of 
the  Waldstatten,  this  company  aided  in  defeat- 
ing an  Austrian  army  on  the  field  of  Riitli; 
and  soon  after  that  event  Glarus  was  admitted 
into  the  confederacy,  though  upon  a  footing 
somewhat  inferior  to  the  other  members. 


42  Annals  of  Switzerland 

In  Zug,  a  district  lying  between  Zurich  and 
the  Waldstatten,  a  majority  of  the  population 
were  in  sympathy  with  the  confed- 
erates, but  the  town  remained  faith- 
ful to  Austria  until  threatened  by  the  victorious 
Zurichers,  Then  the  Duke's  indifference  to  her 
danger  gave  excuse  for  the  admission  of  the 
confederate  army,  and  in  1352  Zug  was  shel- 
tered within  the  Bund. 

Bern,  founded  in  1191  by  Berchthold  V.  of 
Zeringen,    to   signalize  his  exploit  in  killing 

a  bear  upon  the  spot,^  had  rapidly 
Bern.  .       , 

attained  a  position   of   prominence, 

and  boasted  an  early  charter,  distinguished  by 
its  seal  of  beaten  gold.  Made  a  free  city  of 
the  empire  by  Frederick  II.,  the  sovereignty 
of  Bern  was  swiftly  extended  over  a  wide  cir- 
cuit which  embraced  many  growing  towns. 
The  strength  thus  acquired  aroused  the  jealousy 
of  noble  families  in  the  vicinity,  but  on  the 
Dornbuhl,  and  at  Oberwangen,  the  burghers 
were  victorious  over  the  combined  forces  of 
their  antagonists,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century  Bern  became  the  most  in- 
fluential city  in  the  district  now  covered  by 
the    Swiss    confederation.      But    neighboring 

*  "  From  a  monster  slain,  let  there  be  a  name  to  the  future 
city." 


Growth  of  the  Confederacy  43 

seignors  maintained  a  hostile  attitude,  and 
continued  their  efforts  to  force  from  the  city 
council  a  recognition  of  Austrian  authority, 
until,  failing  in  every  attempt  at  conciliation, 
the  burghers  of  Bern  prepared  to  assert  their 
independence  in  the  face  of  the  invading  foe. 
The  projects  of  their  enemies  had  been  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Emperor,  and  "seven  hundred 
barons  with  crowned  helmets,  twelve  hundred 
knights,  and  eighteen  hundred  soldiers  "  formed 
the  force  that  drove  the  terrified  peasants  into 
the  city,  where  leading  men  in  the  enemy's 
camp,  with  confident  anticipation  of  victory, 
had  already  selected  their  mansions.  The 
town  of  Laupen,  in  the  canton  of  Bern,  was 
first  threatened,  and  six  hundred  men  from  the 
city  of  Bern,  with  nine  hundred  allies  from 
the  Waldstatten,  were  sent  to  its  relief,  under 
command  of  Rudolf  of  Erlach.^ 

While  the  leaders  of  the  hostile  bands  were 
occupied  in  exchanging  messages  of  defiance, 
Diebold  of  Basilwind,  a  Teutonic  knight,  and 
a  priest  of  Bern,  promised  heavenly  rewards  to 
all  who  should  meet  death  in  their  defence  of 
liberty.  The  conflict  between  the  two  power- 
ful armies  was  prolonged  and  fierce,  but  the 
stout  burghers  of  Bern  at  length   gained  the 

I  Some  historians  name  John  of  Bubenberg  as  commander. 


44  Annals  of  Switzerland 

mastery,  and  their  routed  enemy  fled,  leaving 
fifteen  hundred  from  their  ranks  upon  the  field. 
Then,  after  a  night  passed  upon  the  battle- 
ground, according  to  their  custom,  the  exultant 
Bernese  marched  homewards,  bearing  the  cap- 
tured banners  of  twenty-seven  noble  families. 
The  victory  at  Laupen  gave  freedom  to  Bern, 
for,  although  hostilities  were  prolonged  during 
several  years,  the  domination  of  the  nobility 
was  ended. 

At  the  termination  of  the  conflict  Erlach 
relinquished  the  authority  with  which  he  had 
been  temporarily  invested,  and  retired  to  his 
castle  of  Reichenbach,  where  a  few  years  later 
he  met  a  tragic  death.  In  1353  Bern  entered 
into  full  covenant  with  Uri,  Schwyz,  and 
Unterwalden,  making  the  eighth  member  of 
the  league,  which  for  more  than  a  century 
received  no  additional  support.  The  three 
original  allies  were  under  mutual  obligations, 
while  those  who  had  more  recently  joined  the 
Bund  were  in  alliance  with  the  Waldstatten, 
but,  unless  bound  by  a  special  private  cove- 
nant, ^  remained  independent  of  one  another. 
Zurich  was  made    Vorort  or  directing  canton, 

1  Luzern  was  thus  allied  with  Zurich  and  Zug;  Zurich  with 
Luzern,  Zug,  and  Glarus ;  Glarus  with  Zurich  only ;  Zug  with 
Luzern  and  Zurich ;  Bern  with  only  the  original  trio. 


Growth  of  the  Confederacy  45 

and  upon  her  territory,  in  the  open-air  assem- 
blies,   called    Landesgemeifidcn,    the  zviAc\i. 
burghers,  summoned  by  a  loud  bell,   Vorort. 
gathered  annually  on  the  last  Sunday  in  April 
to  deliberate  upon  all  matters  of  common  in- 
terest, either  in  peace  or  war.     After  landes- 
the   celebration   of    a   religious   ser-  eemeinden. 
vice,  the  business  of  the  day  consisted  of  an 
inspection  of  the  annual  accounts,  the  promul- 
gation of  new  laws,  and  the  election  of  new 
officials.     Free  discussion  was  permitted,  and 
a  vote  of  assent  was  signified  by  the  elevation 
of  the  hand.     The  final  ceremony  was  the  instal- 
lation  of   the   Landammami,   or   chief   magis- 
trate,  who   was    required  to   take   an  oath   of 
fidelity  to  the  terms  of   the  Btmdesbrief,  and 
to  exchange  with  the  people  oaths  of  loyalty. 

In  the  predatory  warfare  that  still  existed 
between  members  of  the  league  and  Austria, 
the  troops  of  the  Duke  had  suffered  repeated 
defeats,  and  Albert,  anxious  to  terminate  the 
contest,  sought  to  collect  an  army  that  should 
finally  overpower  the  "obstinate  peasants"  who 
defied  his  authority.  In  1352,  a  force  of  thirty 
thousand  foot  and  four  thousand  horse  were 
intrusted  to  Everhard,  Count  of  Wurtemberg, 
who  immediately  laid  siege  to  Zurich.  The 
city,   although  unprepared  for  the  attack,   de- 


46  Annals  of  Switzerland 

fended  itself  until  the  besieging  army  were 
fellow-sufferers  in  a  bitter  famine,  and  Albert 
was  glad  to  accept  the  terms  of  an  agreement 
TheBranden-  known  as  the  "Brandenburg  peace." 
burg  Peace,  jj^  ^j^jg  compromise,  revenues  from 
Schwyz,  Unterwalden,  and  Luzern  were  guar- 
anteed the  Duke;  and  Glarus  and  Zug,  though 
preserving  their  connection  with  the  Helvetic 
league,  were  again  placed  under  the  domina- 
tion of  Austria.  But  disputes  relative  to  the 
interpretation  of  special  terms  of  this  treaty 
soon  arose,  and  Albert  appealed  to  the  Emperor 
as  umpire.  Charles  VI.,  allied  by  family  ties 
to  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  displayed  so  strong 
a  partiality  for  the  interests  of  the  Duke,  that 
the  Swiss  promptly  declined  to  accept  his  medi- 
ation, and,  irritated  by  this  rejection  of  his 
authority,  the  Emperor  refused  to  recognize 
their  confederacy. 

With  the  declaration,  "  members  of  the  empire 
can  form  no  compact  without  the  imperial  con- 
sent," Charles  despatched  an  army  to  join  that 
of  the  Duke,  again  encamped  before  Zurich; 
but  Albert,  disheartened  by  repeated  reverses, 
soon  abandoned  his  plan  of  operations,  and  for- 
Peaceof  bade  the  name  of  the  Swiss  to  be 
Ratisbon.  mentioned  in  his  presence.  The 
imperial  forces  were  also  soon  recalled,  and  a 


Growth  of  the  Confederacy  47 

peace,  concluded  at  Ratisbon  in  1355,  termi- 
nated the  fruitless  contest. 


The  great  plague  that  desolated  so  large  a 
portion  of  Europe  and  Asia  in  the  fourteenth 
century  was  disastrous  to  Switzer-  Great  piague. 
land,  where  estates  were  left  with-  Flagellants, 
out  claimants  and  towns  were  depopulated. 
The  Jews,  suspected  of  having  originated  the 
scourge  by  poisoning  the  wells,  suffered  every- 
where terrible  persecutions;  and  when  these 
measures  produced  no  diminution  in  the  death- 
roll,  religious  fanaticism  was  awakened,  and 
fraternities  known  as  Flagellants  wandered 
through  the  land,  doing  penance  for  the  sins 
of  the  world.  They  bore  a  letter  reputed  to 
have  been  written  in  marble  by  the  Divine 
hand,  which  announced  that  God  had  deter- 
mined upon  the  immediate  destruction  of  the 
world,  but  mercy  would  be  shown  those  who, 
acknowledging  their  sin,  should  unite  in  deeds 
of  penitence.  Commands  of  Pope  and  princes 
forbidding  the  extravagant  practices  of  the  sect, 
were  alike  defied,  but  as  the  virulence  of  the 
disease  abated,  their  influence  declined.  At 
the  end  of  four  years,  although  excitement  had 
thoroughly  disorganized  the  afflicted  districts, 
and  eradicated  the  civilizing  work  of  genera- 


48  Annals  of  Switzerland 

tions;  yet,  in  the  words  of  an  old  chronicler, 
"  The  world  began  again  to  be  merry,  and  men 
made  them  new  clothes,  and  sang  new  songs. " 

In  1370,  the  Waldstatten,  with  Zurich  and 
Zug,  adopted  the  Pfaffenbrief,  or  "  Letters  of 
xhe  the  Priests,"  a  strong  protest  against 

Pfaffenbrief.  ^j^g  abuse  of  power  by  the  clergy. 
This  document,  one  of  great  importance  in  the 
development  of  Swiss  government,  is  remark- 
able for  having  introduced  the  principle  of 
the  authority  of  a  majority  in  the  adoption  of 
new  statutes.  As  a  result  of  the  tenets  it  em- 
bodied, nobles  in  want  of  pecuniary  resources 
prompted  the  towns  to  tax  ecclesiastics,  and 
the  emboldened  peasantry  refused  to  render  to 
their  priests  many  former  services  of  vassalage. 
But  with  the  decline  of  clerical  authority,  the 
power  of  the  nobility  also  waned,  and  many 
of  that  class,  who  had  rivalled  the  house  of 
Austria  in  tyrannical  rule,  prepared  a  way  for 
the  overthrow  of  their  own  authority  in  giving 
sanction  to  the  Pfaffenbrief. 

At  this  period  neither  sovereign  nor  city 
maintained  a  standing  army,^  but  feudal  obli- 
gations compelled  the  enrolment  for   military 

^  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy  was  the  first  prince  to  dis- 
cern the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  maintenance  of  a 
standing  army. 


Growth  of  the  Confederacy  49 

service  of  noble,  burgher,  and  peasant,  at  the 
summons  of  prince,  seignor,  or  city  council. 
When  this  obligation  became  burdensome,  or 
less  absolute,  as  the  feudal  system  declined, 
bands  of  penniless  men  were  assembled,  will- 
ing to  undertake  any  enterprise  for  money, 
who,  ranging  over  the  Continent,  xhe 
proffered  mercenary  service.  Such  condottieri. 
bands  were  originally  gathered  in  Italy,  where 
the  soldiers  received  the  name  of  condottieri. 

Arnold  of  Cervola,  an  Italian  captain  out  of 
employment,  undertook  a  predatory  excursion 
into  Switzerland,  and  advanced  against  Basle, 
where  the  fortifications  had  recently  been  weak- 
ened by  an  earthquake.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
city  begged  aid  of  the  confederates,  and  fifteen 
hundred  troops  were  despatched  to  defend  this 
important  outpost,  whereupon  Cervola  retreated 
without  venturing  an  attack.  Ten  years  later 
Ingram  de  Courcy,  son-in-law  of  Edward  III. 
of  England,  declared  a  feud  against  Austria, 
on  the  ground  of  the  non-payment  of  dowry 
promised  his  mother,  the  daughter  of  Duke 
Leopold  I.  The  reigning  Duke,  Leopold  III., 
pretended  that  the  dowry  lands  had  fallen  into 
the  possession  of  the  Swiss,  and  summoned 
them  to  aid  against  De  Courcy.  The  Wald- 
statten  declared  that  sacrifice  of  troops  for  the 
4 


50  Annals  of  Switzerland 

protection  of  a  hostile  power  was  impossible, 
but  promised  to  remain  neutral,  while  Bern 
and  Zurich,  whose  territory  was  exposed  to 
attack,  sent  forces  to  join  the  army  of  Austria. 
On  the  approach  of  the  invaders  a  panic  seized 
both  the  Austrian  troops  and  their  Swiss  allies; 
and  fleeing  before  encountering  the  enemy,  they 
abandoned  to  De  Courcy's  plundering  bands 
the  entire  country  from  the  Jura  to  the  gates 
of  Bern.  This  aroused  the  Waldstatten,  and 
for  self -protect  ion  they  despatched  a  band  of 
men  from  Luzern  and  Unterwalden  to  join  the 
troops  from  Entlibuch.  The  combined  forces 
encountered  and  defeated  De  Courcy's  men, 
Battle  of  near  Biittisholz  (1376),  where  a 
Bdttishoiz.  mound,  still  called  the  "  English  bar- 
row "  {Engldnder  Huget),  remains  as  a  promi- 
nent monument  of  the  battle. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   ERA  OF   SEMPACH   AND   NAFELS 

1376-1412 

A  SLIGHT  anachronism  may  be  detected  in  the 

picture  representing  the  burghers  of  Solothurn 

standing  upon  the  walls  of  their  city 

Solotlmni. 
to  witness  the  creation  of  Adam  and 

Eve;    but   an    inscription   upon    its   cathedral 

ascribes  to  the  town  a  veritable  antiquity  that 

in  north-western  Europe  is  antedated  by  Treves 

alone. 

A  knight  of  the  fourteenth  century,  Count 

Rudolf   of  Kyburg,   cherished   the  belief  that 

he    possessed    by   inheritance    a    claim    upon 

Solothurn,  and,  failing  to  establish   his   title 

through  the  authority  of  archives,  he  plotted  a 

secret  seizure  of  the  ancient  city.     Aided  by 

the    prior    of    the   cathedral,   with  whom    he 

claimed    kinship,    and    by    the    canon,    John 

Amstein,  who  lived  upon  the  city  walls,  the 

Count  arranged  for  the  secret  admission  of  his 

armed  retainers. 


52  Annals  of  Switzerland 

On  the  appointed  night,  in  darkness  and  in 
silence,  the  foe  advanced;  but,  unseen  by  them, 
a  peasant  named  John  Rott,  who  had  learned 
their  traitorous  projects,  ran  forward  and  warned 
of  impending  danger  the  watchman  at  the 
eastern  gate.  Attempting  to  sound  the  city 
bells,  the  watchman  found  them  muffled ;  but 
cries  of  alarm  echoing  through  the  streets 
aroused  the  inhabitants,  and  when  the  Count 
of  Kyburg  reached  the  walls  he  found  them 
guarded  by  armed  and  resolute  men,  from  whose 
presence  he  hastily  retired. 

The  treacherous  canon  was  speedily  put  to 
death,  and  to  John  Rott  and  his  descendants, 
in  memory  of  the  patriotic  exploit,  the  citizens 
of  Solothurn  decreed  the  annual  gift  of  a  coat, 
in  the  city  colors  of  red  and  white.  On  the 
Count  of  Kyburg,  Solothurn  took  revenge  by 
ravaging  his  estates;  and  during  the  lifetime 
of  his  successor  the  entire  domain  was  divided 
between  Solothurn  and  Bern. 

This  ruin  of  the  ancient  house  of  Kyburg 
aroused  the  animosity  of  other  noble  families 
against  all  who  sought  exemption  from  feudal 
bonds,  and,  confident  of  ability  to  crush  both 
free  cities  and  ambitious  peasantry,  the  sei- 
gnors  multiplied  their  exactions  until  insurrec- 
tions were  the  result.    .  Then  ecclesiastical  and 


The  Era  of  Sempach  and  Nafels     53 

secular  lords,  assured  of  Austrian  aid,  joined 
to  punish  all  who  opposed  their  arbitrary  sway, 
and  in  a  short  time  war  was  again  rampant  over 
the  land,  massacres  were  perpetrated  by  the 
nobles,  and  castles  destroyed  by  the  people. 
Hostilities  were  brought  to  a  crisis  when,  in 
resistance  to  new  taxes  imposed  by  Peter  of 
Thorberg  and  the  Count  of  Rothenburg,  the 
castle  of  the  one  was  razed  to  the  ground  and 
subjects  of  the  other  sought  a  defensive  alli- 
ance with  Luzern.  The  men  of  Luzern  —  in  a 
chronic  state  of  irritation  since  the  Branden- 
burg Peace  had  compelled  them  to  resume  pay- 
ment of  revenues  to  Austria  —  attacked  the 
custom-house  at  Rothenburg,  and  gave  the 
privileges  of  burghership  to  the  discontented 
people  of  the  town  of  Sempach.  Twenty  threat- 
ening messages,  received  in  succession  by  the 
confederates,  failed  to  weaken  their  determina- 
tion to  assist  the  rebels,  Bern  alone  standing 
aloof,  on  the  ground  that  her  truce  with  Austria 
had  not  expired. 

Leopold  III.,  of  Austria,  swearing  vengeance 
upon   all   the   confederates,   united   his  forces 
with  those  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-  Battle  of 
seven  seignors,  and   on   the   9th   of  sempach. 
July,  1386,  met  the  Swiss  army  near  Sempach, 
in  the  canton  of  Luzern.     The  nobles,  finding 


54  Annals  of  Switzerland 

their  horses  useless  among  the  mountains,  dis- 
mounted, cut  the  long  peaks  from  their  shoes 
that  they  might  not  become  entangled  in  the 
high  meadow  grass,  and  closed  in  an  appar- 
ently impenetrable  phalanx,  which  bristled 
with  pointed  lances. 

The  fifteen  hundred  Swiss  bore  only  boards 
for  bucklers,  and  at  the  first  charge  many  fell 
before  the  extended  spears  of  the  enemy. 
Undismayed,  the  peasants  rushed  forward  a 
second  time,  but  only  to  meet  a  similar  re- 
pulse. The  utter  annihilation  of  the  brave 
little  band  seemed  inevitable,  but  suddenly  the 
tide  of  battle  turned,  and  winged  Victory  rested 
on  the  side  of  the  patriots.  The  chronicled 
solution  of  this  caprice  of  fortune  was  undis- 
puted by  early  Swiss  writers,  though  too  roman- 
Arnoidvon  ^ic  to  be  credited  by  modern  his- 
winkeiried.  torians.  According  to  the  ancient 
records,  a  knight  of  Unterwalden,  named  Arnold 
von  Winkelried,  heroically  devoted  his  life  to 
save  his  country,  and  at  the  third  charge,  ex- 
tending his  arms,  with  the  words,  "I  will  open 
a  path  to  freedom ;  provide  for  my  wife  and 
children ;  honor  my  race !  "  he  clasped  as  many 
as  he  could  gather  of  the  iron  lances,  and  bore 
them  to  the  earth.  Over  his  prostrate  body  his 
comrades  forced  their  way  into  the  Austrian 


The  Era  of  Sempach  and  Nafels     55 

ranks,  and,  beneath  Swiss  maces,  armored 
prince  and  knight  fell  to  the  ground,  until  six 
hundred  of  their  number,  with  two  thousand 
soldiers,  had  been  slain  by  a  band  of  fourteen 
hundred  poorly-armed  peasants.  Thrice  the 
Austrian  banner  sank,  thrice  was  it  raised 
again,  until,  Duke  Leopold  himself  falling 
beside  it,  a  disastrous  flight  ensued. 

Thus,  seventy-one  years  after  Morgarten, 
the  intrepid  confederates  again  triumphed  over 
Austria.  Their  leader,  Gundoldingen,  was 
slain  in  the  battle,  and  their  loss  in  num- 
bers was  great ;  but  they  were  unsubdued.  A 
truce  for  eighteen  months  was  concluded  with 
Austria,  but  so  numerous  were  the  acts  of  ill- 
faith  committed  on  both  sides  during  the  period 
covered  by  the  compact,  that  it  be-  The  "Bad 
came  notorious  as  the  "Bad  Peace."  Peace." 
The  spirit  of  animosity  continued  so  intense, 
that  in  all  Switzerland  no  man  dared  to  display 
the  peacock-feather  (the  symbol  of  the  Austrian 
dukes);  no  peacock  was  permitted  to  live  in  the 
land;  and  it  is  recorded  in  Swiss  annals  that 
once  a  patriot  shivered  to  fragments  the  drink- 
ing-glass  he  held,  because  through  it,  refracted 
sun-rays  produced  the  variegated  colors  of  the 
abhorred  bird. 

Believing  that  the  power  of  Austria  had  been 


56  Annals  of  Switzerland 

broken  at  Sempach,  Glarus,  which  since  the 
treaty  of  1352  had  remained  subservient  to  the 
Revoitof  Duke,  now  rose  in  rebellion;  but  in 
Giams.  ^j^g    closing    months    of    the    "Bad 

Peace, "  Austrian  emissaries  succeeded,  through 
the  treachery  of  citizens,  in  obtaining  posses- 
sion of  the  town  of  Wesen  in  the  canton  of 
Glarus,  where  they  put  to  death  the  native  gar- 
rison. Confederate  assistance  could  not  be 
expected  while  the  mountain  passes  were 
blocked  by  snow,  and  the  men  of  Glarus  sought 
alone  to  redeem  their  city  from  the  foe.  The 
demands  of  the  Austrians  were  peremptory. 
"You  must  obey  Austria  as  serfs,  have  only 
such  laws  as  your  lord  shall  grant  you,  repu- 
diate the  bond  with  the  confederate  Swiss  and 
serve  against  them,  make  compensation  for  the 
damage  you  have  done,  and  expiate  your  mis- 
deeds until  you  deserve  the  grace  of  the  Duke. " 
These  terms  Glarus  refused  to  consider,  and 
Batueof  when  all  attempts  at  a  compromise 
itiifeis.  failed,  the  patriots,    barely  six  hun- 

dred in  number,  stationed  themselves  at  Nafels 
to  encounter  the  Austrian  army. 

Eleven  simple  stones,  bearing  only  the  date 
"1388,"  mark  the  spot  where  that  handful  of 
shepherds  under  Matthias  Am  Buel,  lands- 
captain,  kept  in  check  the  hosts  of  the  enemy. 


The  Era  of  Sempach  and  Nafels     57 

In  the  height  of  the  struggle,  shouts  were  heard 
upon  the  mountains,  raised  by  thirty  men  of 
Schwyz  hastening  to  assist  their  allies.  The 
Austrians,  ignorant  of  the  number  approach- 
ing, were  startled  and  plunged  into  confusion. 
Their  cavalry  retreated,  and  their  infantry  fled 
in  dismay,  while  the  men  of  Glarus  pursued, 
until  twenty-five  hundred  of  the  enemy  were 
slain,  and  many  more  drowned  in  the  waters  of 
the  Linth. 

This  closed  the  list  of  battles  against  Austrian 
encroachments  in  the  eight  cantons,^  Zug  hav- 
ing been  won  by  the  men  of  Schwyz  seym  Years' 
in  1364.  The  Duke,  with  both  finan-  '^*^**- 
cial  and  military  strength  seriously  impaired, 
willingly  concluded  a  truce  for  seven  years, 
which  secured  to  the  confederates  all  their 
acquisitions.  Although  private  prerogatives  of 
the  house  of  Hapsburg  as  landed  proprietors 
were  guaranteed  by  Bern,  Zurich,  and  "Solo- 
thurn,  with  the  acquiescence  of  the  entire  con- 
federacy, the  authority  of  Austria  in  all  other 
respects  was  finally  broken.  The  seven  years' 
truce  was  in  1394  extended  to  twenty  years. 

Gradually  the  cities  of  the  league  multiplied 
their  franchises,  and  purchased  freedom  from 

*  On  the  5th  of  April,  1888,  a  monument  was  dedicated  near 
Nafels  to  commemorate  the  victory, 


58  Annals  of  Switzerland 

the  feudal  jurisdiction  of  Austrian  seignors. 
Luzern,  Bern,  and  Zurich  grew  so  prosperous 
that  the  privileges  of  their  citizenship  were 
sought  by  the  neighboring  nobility,  who  by  this 
means  acquired  coveted  prerogatives,  one  of 
which  was  the  right  to  persecute  the  Jews. 

Leopold  IV.  of  Austria  repeatedly  attempted 
to  sow  dissensions  among  the  confederates,  but, 
sempach  convinced  of  the  importance  of  inter- 
wFraum-  "^^  harmony,  the  cantons  concluded, 
brief.  at  Zurich,  in   1393,  a  State  compact, 

known  as  the  Sempach  Declaration.  By  special 
provisions  therein  recorded,  federal  sovereignty 
was  strengthened,  revengeful  acts  among  mem- 
bers of  the  confederacy  were  prohibited,  safety 
of  intercourse  and  of  commerce  was  insured, 
and  unnecessary  plunder  of  invaded  territory 
was  forbidden.  Churches  and  convents  were 
to  be  respected,  but  in  time  of  war  an  enemy 
might  be  pursued  even  into  churches.  Women 
were  never  to  be  molested  unless  they  took 
the  offensive,  hence  this  covenant  was  some- 
times called  the  Frauenbrief,  or  "Woman's 
Charter." 

The  organization  of  the  new  state  of  Appen- 

zell  soon  augmented  the  strength  of 
AppenzeU. 

the  confederacy. 

A  current  tradition,  of  questionable  historic 


The  Era  of  Sempach  and  Nafels     59 

accuracy,  traces  the  settlement  of  Appenzell  to 
a  time  when  the  devil,  flying  over  the  Sentis 
with  a  sackful  of  houses,  tore  a  hole  in  the 
sack,  and  dropped  the  houses  down  in  their 
present  confusion;  but  a  more  credible  reason 
for  the  habitation  of  the  district  is  found  in  its 
proximity  to  the  abbot's  cell  {Abtzelle),  from 
which  the  name  is  derived. 

On  the  extensive  lands  early  granted  to  the 
Abbot  of  St.  Gall,  serfs  of  that  ecclesiastic 
resided,  who  cultivated  the  ground  and  paid 
tithes  of  their  harvests  to  the  Abbot's  bailiff. 
In  this  neighborhood  freemen  of  the  empire 
claimed  the  right  to  choose  their  own  council, 
and  were  under  the  supervision  of  an  imperial 
bailiff  alone.  By  a  gradual  purchase  of  land  the 
Abbots  of  St.  Gall  obtained  from  the  Emperor 
jurisdiction  over  this  adjacent  territory,  and 
then  to  the  faithful  abbey-people  privileges 
were  granted  which  raised  them  more  nearly 
to  the  level  of  their  neighbors. 

In  1379,  Kuno  of  Staufen  became  Abbot  of 
St.  Gall.  He  refused  to  confirm  the  fran- 
chises of  the  peasantry  in  either  district,  but 
increased  their  taxes,  and  enforced  every  claim 
of  his  early  predecessors.  When  his  bailiff 
caused  a  grave  to  be  opened  that  he  might 
obtain  a  coat,  which  had  been  the  most  valu- 


6o  Annals  of  Switzerland 

able  chattel  of  the  dead  tenant,  the  peasants 
rose  in  resistance  to  bis  tyranny,  and  attacked 
the  Abbot's  castle.  Kuno  obtained  aid  from  six 
Swabian  cities,  reinstated  his  ejected  officer, 
and  refused  heed  to  the  request  that  his  tenants 
might  be  permitted  to  nominate  men  from 
whom  he  should  choose  a  bailiff.  Then  the 
Appenzellers  sought  a  defensive  alliance  with 
the  town  of  St.  Gall,  but,  failing  to  secure  this, 
asked  aid  of  the  confederates.  Glarus  and 
Unterwalden  each  sent  two  hundred  men, 
and  Schwyz  promised  support,  though  other 
members  of  the  league  stood  aloof.  When 
coercion  was  again  attempted  by  the  Abbot,  his 
allies,  to  the  number  of  five  thousand,  were 
totally  overthrown  in  the  defile  of  Speicher, 
Batueonthe  ^7  eighteen  hundred  shepherds  of 
vbgeiinsegg.  Appenzell,  with  their  few  allies  from 
Schwyz  and  Glarus.  This  battle,  on  the  hill 
Vogelinsegg,  has  been  called  "The  Morgarten 
of  Appenzell." 

With  success,  the  men  of  Appenzell  gained 
courage,  and  the  Abbot  fled  to  implore  aid  of 
Austria.  The  Duke,  Leopold  IV.,  hesitated  to 
render  active  assistance,  but  the  influence  of 
his  nobility  prevailed,  and  he  made  prepara- 
tions for  invading  Appenzell  with  a  formidable 
force.     The  peasants  obtained  an  ally  in  Count 


The  Era  of  Sempach  and  Nafels     6i 

Rudolf  of  Werdenberg,  whose  hereditary  estates 
had  been  seized  by  Austria,  and  who,  uniting  his 
retainers  with  the  troops  of  Appenzell,  fought 
with  them  on  foot,  sharing  their  hardships,  and 
inspiring  them  both  by  courage  and  counsel. 

On  a  day  in  June,  1405,  the  Austrian  army 
appeared,  ascending  the  hill  of  Stoss,  which 
leads  to  the  heights  of  Appenzell.  Battle  of 
Made  slippery  by  the  abundant  rain  ti»e  stoss. 
which  was  falling,  the  narrow  pass  proved  a 
difficult  path  for  mail-clad  troops,  into  whose 
ranks  bare-footed  peasants  hurled  masses  of 
heavy  rock,  increasing  thus  the  confusion  of 
their  wavering  advance.  When  the  enemy  had 
mounted  the  hill  half-way.  Count  Rudolf  gave 
the  signal  for  assault,  and  a  desperate  conflict 
began.  The  rain  had  rendered  the  crossbows  of 
the  Austrians  useless,  but  they  fought  valiantly, 
until  put  to  rout  by  the  sudden  assault  of  a  band 
of  peasants  who  had  been  in  ambuscade.  The 
stories  tell  also  of  the  sudden  appearance  of 
another  army  upon  the  heights  above  the  pass, 
at  sight  of  whom  the  enemy's  courage  failed, 
and  they  fled  precipitately,  unaware  that  the 
force  whose  advent  discomfited  them  was  com- 
posed of  the  women  of  Appenzell,  clad  in  shep- 
herds' frocks,  who  were  advancing  to  share  the 
fate  appointed  for  their  husbands  and  fathers. 


6a  Annals  of  Switzerland 

After  this  victory  the  Appenzellers  destroyed 
more  than  sixty  castles  belonging  to  the  Aus- 
trian nobility,  and  restored  to  the  Count  of 
Werdenberg  his  entire  patrimony.  Some  vic- 
tories over  scattered  forces  from  Appenzell  were 
gained  by  troops  attached  to  a  band  of  Swabian 
League  of  nobles,  and  known  as  the  League  of 
St.  George.  g^  George ;  ^  but  the  Duke  of  Austria 
had  retreated  to  the  Tyrol,  and  terms  of  peace 
were  soon  arranged  which  freed  Appenzell  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Abbot  of  St.  Gall.  The 
district  was  then  placed  under  the  protection 
of  the  confederacy,  although  in  the  compact 
then  framed  Bern  refused  to  co-operate,  having 
already  negotiated  a  private  treaty  for  ten  years 
with  St.  Gall. 

On  the  death  of  Leopold  IV.  of  Austria 
(141 1),  Frederick  of  the  Empty  Pocket  suc- 
ceeded to  the  Hapsburg  possessions.  The 
strength  of  the  confederacy  was  in- 
Trucewith      creasing;   Bern  had  formed  an  alli- 

Austria.  .  ,       _,        ,  ,        ,,       , 

ance  with  Freyburg,  and  all  the 
cantons  were  prompt,  either  secretly  or  openly, 
in  proffering  assistance  to  enemies  of  Austria. 
To  prevent  the  total  alienation  of  his  dominions, 

1  The  Swabian  League,  or  League  of  St.  George,  was  deri- 
sively called  the  "  Petticoat  League,"  from  the  style  of  coat 
worn  by  members. 


The  Era  of  Sempach  and  Nafels     6^ 

Frederick  concluded  a  peace  for  fifty  years  with 
the  confederates,  and  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty, 
Appenzell  and  Solothurn,  as  well  as  the  cantons, 
were  confirmed  in  their  possession  of  all  newly- 
acquired  territory. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  COUNCIL  OF  CONST/VNCB 

1414 

Long  before  the  close  of  the  middle  ages, 
Europe  was  tossed  in  the  tumult  of  religious 
controversy  that  culminated  in  the  Reforma- 
tion. Hallam  characterizes  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  literature  disseminated  between  the 
twelfth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  as  "artillery 
levelled  against  the  clergy,"  and  the  wide- 
spread luxury  and  immorality  among  the  priestly 
class  tended  greatly  to  diminish  the  traditional 
reverence  for  its  authority.  The  fourteenth 
century  witnessed  the  so-called  "Babylonish 
exile  of  the  Papacy,"  at  Avignon  (1308-1378), 
and  after  the  election  of  1378,  when  Christ- 
endom beheld  two  rival  pontiffs  fulminating 
anathemas  against  each  other,  inquiry  into  the 
nature  of  the  priestly  office  was  instituted  in  a 
critical  temper  before  unknown. 

The  council  of  Pisa  sought,  by  the  deposition 
of  both  Popes  and  the  elevation  of  Martin  V.  to 


The  Council  of  Constance  65 

the  ecclesiastical  supremacy,  to  soothe  the  pre- 
vailing anarchy,  but  this  proceeding  served  only 
to  add  fuel  to  the  flames,  and  to  sanction  the 
pretensions  of  a  third  claimant  for  the  papal 
chair. 

For  the  consideration  of  these  disputes  and 
of  kindred  subjects,  a  General  Council  was  sum- 
moned to  convene  at  Constance.  There  gath- 
ered princes  and  nobles  from  all  the  kingdoms 
of  Europe,  with  deputies  from  universities  and 
representatives  of  monasteries.  Their  work 
was  undertaken  with  zeal,  the  contending 
claimants  for  the  papal  chair  were  all  deposed, 
and  the  Catholic  world  was  once  more  united 
under  a  single  head.  This  "  most  august  eccle- 
siastical assemblage  of  the  middle  ages  "  also 
distinguished  itself  by  breaking  the  spell  that 
had  formerly  environed  papal  enactments,  by 
the  declaration  that  a  council  held  authority  in 
religious  matters  above  the  pontiff  at  Rome,  — 
a  tenet  first  propounded  by  Marsilius  of  Padua, 
in  the  foregoing  century. 

At  this  epoch,  the  doctrines  of  the  English 
Wycliffe  had  become  widely  disseminated  in 
Bohemia   through   the  teachings   of 

John  H1166. 
John  Huss,  "the  John  Baptist  of  the 

Reformation."      Huss    boldly   proclaimed    the 

necessity  for  holiness  of  life,  and  appealed  from 

5 


66  Annals  of  Switzerland 

the  Pope  to  the  Bible.  By  attacking  the  scan- 
dalous lives  of  the  clergy,  the  reformer  aroused 
a  bitter  personal  animosity,  whose  first  fruit 
was  his  excommunication.  Driven  by  this  sen- 
tence from  his  home  in  Prague,  Huss  was  fol- 
lowed in  his  wanderings  by  many  adherents, 
eager  to  receive  his  instructions,  and  when 
summoned  to  appear  at  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance, his  steps  toward  Switzerland  were 
protected  by  an  imperial  safe-conduct. 

Commanded  by  the  Council  to  retract  his 
heretical  assertions,  Huss  steadily  refused  to 
comply,  unless  convinced  of  error  through  the 
Scriptures;  and  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  noted 
as  a  sovereign  "above  the  rules  of  grammar," 
was  easily  induced,  despite  his  guarantee,  to 
permit  the  imprisonment  of  the  reformer. 
Every  effort  to  force  from  Huss  a  recantation 
of  his  opinions  proved  ineffectual,  and  he  stead- 
fastly asserted  his  right  to  form  private  judg- 
ments, until  led  from  the  prison  to  the  stake. 
On  the  forty-second  anniversary  of  his  birth, 
June  6,  141 5,  Huss  was  publicly  burned  to 
death,  and  his  ashes  thrown  into  the  Rhine.  ^ 

^  Huss  used  to  say,  in  allusion  to  his  own  name,  which  in 
the  Bohemian  dialect  signifies  a  goose,  "  The  goose  is  a  weak 
and  tame  creature,  and  cannot  fly  high,  but  stronger  birds  will 
follow  it ;  falcons  and  eagles  will  soar  aloft,  breaking  through 
all  snares." 


The  Council  of  Constance  67 

The  following  year  the  same  sentence  was  ex- 
ecuted upon  Jerome  of  Prague,   the  jeromeof 
learned  and  zealous  associate  of  Huss-    ^^«^^- 

Upon  the  death  of  King  Wenceslaus  of 
Bohemia,  in  1419,  the  Emperor  Sigismund 
laid  claim  to  his  dominions,  but  his  succes- 
sion was  disputed  by  the  Hussites,  under  their 
brave,  though  blind  leader,  John  of  Trocznow, 
surnamed  "Ziska,"  whose  skill  in  warfare 
baffled  the  efforts  of  Sigismund  during  fifteen 
years.  The  Hussites  were  divided  into  two 
sects,  —  the  Calixtines  or  Utraquists,  and  the 
Saborites.  The  main  point  for  which  the 
Calixtines  contended  was  the  right  of  the  laity 
to  receive  the  cup  in  the  communion,  but  they 
went  beyond  Huss  in  the  claim  that  both  ele- 
ments were  necessary  in  the  administration  of 
the  sacrament.  The  Saborites,  still  more  ultra 
than  the  Calixtines,  sought  an  entire  separation 
from  the  existing  church.  In  1433  an  agree- 
ment was  reached  between  the  mod-  The 
erate  party  and  the  Council  of  Basle,  compactata. 
and  in  a  document  known  as  the  "  Compactata," 
the  Calixtines  were  granted  many  points  for 
which  they  had  long  contended.  Succeeding 
popes  made  efforts  to  annul  the  Compactata, 
but  the  Hussites  strenuously  insisted  upon  the 


6B  Annals  of  Switzerland 

prerogatives  it   sanctioned,   until   they  finally 
attained  a  legal  equality  with  the  Catholics. 

The  summons  to  the  three  rival  popes  to 
appear  before  the  Council  of  Constance  was 
answered  only  by  John  XXII.  Finding  his 
position  in  the  city  an  equivocal  one,  he  fled 
thence  to  Schaffhausen,  and  sought  refuge  in 
the  castle  of  the  Duke  of  Austria,  Frederick 
of  the  Empty  Pocket.  The  protection  afforded 
the  deposed  pontiff  called  forth  against  Fred- 
erick a  bill  of  excommunication  from  the  Coun- 
cil, which  was  followed  by  the  ban  of  the 
empire,  and  a  summons  to  all  faithful  imperial 
subjects  to  unite  against  Austria.  The  Swiss 
hesitated  to  obey;  their  treaty  for  fifty  years 
having  been  recently  concluded,  Zurich,  Zug, 
Luzern,  and  Glarus  declared  with  the  Wald- 
statten  that  the  violation  of  this  compact  was 
impossible.  But  Bern,  anxious  to  avail  herself 
of  the  opportunity  for  acquisition  of  new  terri- 
tory, armed  her  troops,  and  when  an  imperial 
manifesto  guaranteed  to  each  canton  permanent 
possession  of  whatever  lands  it  might  conquer 
from  the  enemy,  she  took  the  field  without 
awaiting  the  concurrence  of  her  allies.  This 
aroused  the  jealousy  of  Zurich,  who  desired  to 
share  the  prospective  booty,  and  at  length  the 
entire  confederacy,  with  the  exception  of  Uri, 


The  Council  of  Constance  69 

followed  the  example  of  Bern.  Aargau  was 
quickly  captured,  the  revolt  of  many  vassals 
of  Austria  resulted  in  the  loss  of  war  against 
Thurgau,  and  misfortunes  multiplied  ■*™*»^- 
around  Frederick  until  his  resolution  was  broken, 
and,  taking  measures  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
the  Pope,  he  repaired  to  Constance,  and  ten- 
dered his  submission  to  the  Emperor.  After 
months  of  humiliation  the  ban  was  removed, 
and  the  greater  portion  of  the  Duke's  posses- 
sions were  restored,  though  meanwhile  his 
strong  castle  of  Baden  had  been  captured  by 
the  confederates  and  burned  to  the  ground. 
This  deed,  committed  just  before  the  arrival  of 
the  imperial  heralds  with  peace  proclamations, 
excited  the  indignation  of  Sigismund,  and  he 
demanded  that  the  Swiss  should  relinquish  their 
conquests.  They  replied  by  quoting  his  pre- 
vious decree  with  reference  to  the  acquisition 
of  territory,  and  Uri  alone  declined  her  share 
in  the  newly-won  land,  proposing  that  it  should 
all  be  transferred  to  the  Emperor  in  return  for 
a  guaranteed  immunity  from  reprisals  for  viola- 
tion of  the  truce  with  Austria.  This  proposi- 
tion the  other  cantons  refused  to  consider,  but 
agreed  to  place  their  common  acquisitions  under 
the  control  of  bailiffs  who  should  be  appointed 
by  each  canton  in  turn,  and  from  whom,  annu- 


70  Annals  of  Switzerland 

ally-rendered  accounts  of  their  administration 
should  be  received  by  the  confederacy.  Thus 
p,^  were    established    common    or    so- 

Baiuwicks.  called  "free"  bailiwicks,  a  travesty 
upon  the  word,  as  the  districts  possessed  politi- 
cally only  such  rights  as  were  granted  by  the 
cantons. 

These  wars  for  the  acquisition  of  territory, 
says  the  Swiss  historian,  Miiller,  "soiled  the 
pure  robe  of  the  primitive  confederacy."  The 
century,  which  began  with  civil  wars  and  for- 
eign conquests  ended  in  degrading  mercenary 
service. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  opening  of  the 
St.  Gothard  pass  had  promoted  friendly  inter- 
course between  the  Waldstatten  and  their  Italian 
neighbors,  and  a  lively  traffic  in  their  respec- 
tive articles  of  produce  was  long  maintained. 

In  1403  quarrels  occurred  among  the  mer- 
chants at  the  Valaisian  fairs,  and,  in  retaliation 
Conflicts  ^^^  tl^^  seizure  of  their  cattle,  some 
with  Savoy,  j^^gj^  from  Uri  occupied  the  Duomo 
d'OssoIa.  The  Duke  of  Milan  had  sold  this 
valley  to  the  Count  of  Savoy,  and  the  latter' s 
troops  soon  drove  the  Swiss  peasants  over  the 
mountains ;  but  the  Savoyards  had  been  guided 
to  the  valley  by  the  Baron  of  Raron,  a  lord  of 
Valais,    who    claimed    citizenship  with   Bern, 


The  Council  of  Constance  71 

and  complaints  to  that  canton  were  accordingly 
entered  by  the  aggrieved  men  of  Uri  and  Unter- 
walden.  Failing  to  receive  satisfaction  from 
this  quarter,  the  Swiss  then  agreed  to  assist 
the  oppressed  vassals  of  the  Baron  of  Raron  in 
a  revolt  against  their  lord.  For  the  purpose  of 
exciting  the  peasantry  and  securing  their  co- 
operation, an  ancient  custom,  called  the  "rais- 
ing of  La  Mazze,"  was  resorted  to.  At  one 
end  of  a  large  club  was  carved  a  human  face, 
which,  to  represent  suffering,  was  ^i^ 
surrounded  with  thorns;  and  this  Mazze." 
figure,  named  La  Mazze,  was  exhibited  on  the 
highway.  The  crowds  who  gathered,  ques- 
tioned it  unavailingly  upon  its  grievance,  until, 
designating  the  object  of  their  antagonism, 
they  inquired,  "Art  thou  afraid  of  the  Baron 
of  Raron  ?  "  when  the  figure  responded  by  an 
affirmative  gesture.  The  man  in  attendance, 
who  represented  the  master  of  "La  Mazze," 
then  harangued  the  assembled  crowd,  urging 
all  who  would  fight  for  La  Mazze  to  hold  up 
their  hands,  and  the  mob,  thus  excited,  was  led 
through  the  country,  pillaging  the  castles,  and 
desolating  the  estates  of  the  Baron. 

Luzern  joined  Uri  and  Unterwalden,  and 
supported  Valais  in  these  proceedings,  but 
Bern  opposed   them,   and   suggested  a  settle- 


72  Annals  of  Switzerland 

ment  of  differences  by  a  Bernese  diet.  This 
method  of  pacification  the  Valaisians  declined, 
and  soon  found  themselves  abandoned  by 
Luzern,  while  Bern  despatched  against  them 
an  army  of  thirteen  thousand  men. 

Battles  of  -' 

uirichenand  At  the  village  of  Ulrichen  six  hun- 
Munster.  ^^^^  resolute  peasants,  led  by  Thomas 
Riedie,  almost  exterminated  the  Bernese  army, 
while  (141 9)  near  Munster  another  band  in- 
flicted upon  their  titled  adversaries  an  equally 
overwhelming  blow.  The  Baron  of  Raron  was 
sent  a  fugitive  into  Savoy,  but,  through  the 
mediation  of  Duke  Amadeus  VIII.,  a  peace 
was  concluded,  which  left  the  Swiss  in  posses- 
sion of  the  Val  d'Ossola  and  the  Levantina. 

But  the  Duke  of  Milan,  jealous  of  these 
acquisitions,  declared  war  against  the  confed- 
Battie  of  erates,  and  after  a  bloody  conflict  at 
Arbeddo.  Arbeddo,  forced  them  to  relinquish 
(1422)  the  new  territory.  A  Schwyzer,  named 
Peter  Rysig,  resolved  to  revenge  this  humilia- 
tion, and,  having  raised  a  force  of  six  hundred 
men,  crossed  the  mountains,  and  descended 
suddenly  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  Val 
d'Ossola.  The  Milanese  army,  thirty  thou- 
sand strong,  marched  to  meet  them ;  but  when 
summoned  to  surrender,  the  valiant  Rysig 
replied,    "The   Swiss   are    not    conquered    by 


The  Council  of  Constance  73 

words ! "  and  with  heroic  resolution  encoun- 
tered repeated  assaults  of  the  enemy.  Stimu- 
lated by  his  enthusiastic  bravery,  twenty-two 
thousand  confederates  hurried  to  his  aid;  but 
the  Duke  of  Milan  won  many  through  intrigue; 
and  by  the  payment  of  thirty  thousand  florins 
and  the  grant  of  certain  desirable  commercial 
privileges,  he  ultimately  secured  possession  of 
the  Levant ina. 

Among  the  strangers  gathered  at  Constance 
appeared  a  band  of  dark-complexioned,  scantily- 
clad  people,  under  a  leader  who  called 

Gypsies, 
himself    Duke    Michael    of    Egypt. 

His  followers,  known  as  Zingari,  or  gypsies, 
pretended  to  be  descendants  of  tribes  of  Lower 
Egypt,  who  had  refused  to  receive  Joseph  and 
Mary.  Having  now  become  Christians,  the 
band  was  on  a  seven-years'  pilgrimage.  It 
has  been  thought  by  philologists  of  a  recent 
day  that  they  were  remnants  of  the  race  driven 
from  India  upon  the  overthrow  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Sultan  of  Ghaur. 


CHAPTER   VII 

CIVIL   WARS   AND   "THE   EVERLASTING 
COMPACT " 

1436-1474. 

Subsequent  to  the  period  of   Prankish   sove- 
reignty, the  peasants  in  the  district  of  Rhetia 

were  governed  by  feudal  lords,  either 
Rbetla.  1 

secular  or  ecclesiastical,  whose  tyran- 
nical rule  caused  frequent  revolts.  As  early 
as  1396,  defensive  alliances  against  the  des- 
potism of  their  bishops  were  formed  among 
subjects  of  the  convents,  who  were  known  as 
"God's-House  people  ";  and  in  1424  the  com- 
munity of  upper  Rhetia,  known  as  the  "  Gray 
League,"  from  the  color  of  the  frocks  worn  by 
their  deputies,  secured  from  their  seignors  a 
guarantee  of  privileges.  Upon  the  death  of  the 
Count  of  Toggenburg,  a  district  extending  from 
the  Lake  of  Zurich  to  the  Tyrol  was  claimed 
by  various  heirs,  and  to  protect  their  hereditary 
rights  the  inhabitants  united  in  a  compact 
known  as  the  "  League  of  the  Ten  Jurisdic- 
tions."    The  localities  occupied  by  the  God's- 


**The  Everlasting  Compact"        75 

House  league,  the  Gray  league,  and  the  league 

of  the  Ten  Jurisdictions  were  then 

The  GrlsoiM. 
joined  in  a  federal  union,  and  by  a 

modification  of  the  designation  bestowed  upon 
the  second  league,  gave  the  name  of  Orisons  to 
the  entire  territory  of  Rhetia. 

The  Count  of  Toggenburg  had  been  co-burgher 
with  Zurich,  and  also  with  Schwyz;  but  after 
his  death  it  was  discovered  that  permanent 
jurisdiction  over  his  vast  estates  had  been  left 
solely  to  Schwyz.  Madame  Elizabeth,  the 
Count's  widow,  fearing  a  division  of  her  prop- 
erty among  various  claimants,  sought,  by  a 
liberal  donation  of  lands,  to  gain  the  protec- 
tion of  Zurich.  Hereupon  Schwyz  requested 
the  heirs  of  the  Count  to  forbid  the  alienation 
of  any  portion  of  the  estates,  and  the  two 
cities  under  their  chief  men,  —  Stiissi,  burgo- 
master of  Zurich,  and  Itel  Reding,  landam- 
mann  of  Schwyz,  —  were  incited  to  acts  of  bit- 
ter antagonism.  Each  leader  was  ambitious  to 
strengthen  his  own  canton,  at  any  expense. 
Schwyz  sought  the  aid  of  Glarus,  and,  oblivious 
of  more  ancient  bonds,  stood  ready  for  war; 
and  Zurich,  incited  by  jealousy  and 

'  "'•'■'  Qtuurelbe- 

resentment,  had  already  assumed  tween  znricii 
arms,  when  the  other  confederates  "  ^  ^^^' 
interfered.     A  council  was  convened  at  Luzem, 


76  Annals  of  Switzerland 

but  adjourned  after  a  session  of  four  weeks, 
without  having  reconciled  the  antagonists.  A 
second  and  a  third  assembly  proved  equally 
powerless,  and  Schwyz  finally  declared  that  she 
would  accept  no  compromise.  Then  a  gen- 
eral meeting  was  called  at  Bern,  from  whence 
messages  were  sent  to  the  two  wrathful  cities, 
announcing  the  intention  of  the  united  con- 
federacy to  intervene  should  the  terms  pro- 
•posed  be  rejected.  Against  such  intervention 
Zurich  protested,  claiming  the  right  of  appeal 
to  the  empire;  but  in  1440  the  troops  of  Uri 
and  Unterwalden,  in  conjunction  with  those 
from  Schwyz  and  Glarus,  desolated  her  land 
with  fire  and  sword,  until,  overpowered  by  the 
combination  of  hostile  agencies,  the  city  was 
forced  to  sign  a  disadvantageous  peace.  Stiissi 
then  appealed  to  Austria  for  aid,  and  entered 
AUiance  into  an  offensive  and  defensive  league 
AiSa°and  ^^^^  ^^^  hereditary  enemy  of  his 
Zurich.  land,    offering  to   cede   the   city   of 

Kyburg  to  Frederick  V.,  who  in  1440  had  been 
elected  Emperor  of  Germany.  In  the  hats  of 
the  troops  of  Zurich,  the  red  crosses  worn  by 
the  Austrians  supplanted  the  white  confederate 
badges,  and  even  the  peacock's  plume  was  occa- 
sionally displayed.  Thus  outraged  by  members 
of  their  own   league,    the   other   confederates 


"The  Everlasting  Compact"        77 

hastened  to  join  Schwyz  in  a  declaration  of 
war  against  Zurich  and  Austria;  and  in  1443 
the  army  of  Zurich  was  defeated  at  St.  Jacob 
on  the  Sihl.     In  an  attempt  to  rally 

,  .      n    •  1       ,  Battle  of  St. 

his  flying  troops,  the  burgomaster,    jacobon 

Stiissi,  was  struck  down  by  the  lance  *^^^^- 
of  a  Schwyzer,  when  the  furious  soldiers,  after 
tearing  out  his  heart,  madly  rubbed  their  boots 
with  portions  of  his  flesh. 

The  confederates  next  besieged  Baden  and 
Rapperswyl ;  but  failing  to  take  the  latter  city, 
they  agreed  to  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  and 
signed  a  treaty  known  as  the  "Rotten  Peace," 
because  so  badly  kept.  Both  parties  then  en- 
deavored to  acquire  strength  through  outside  al- 
liances, and  the  Emperor  asked  aid  of  Burgundy 
and  France.  Philip  the  Good  of  Burgundy 
rejected  every  solicitation  to  open  hostilities 
toward  a  people  with  whom  his  intercourse 
had  long  been  both  cordial  and  profitable;  but 
France  and  Austria  joined  hands,  invasion  of 
and  the  Dauphin,  "that  troublesome  Armagnacs. 
heir  to  the  throne,"  afterwards  Louis  XL,  ad- 
vanced upon  Basle,  with  the  rapacious  mer- 
cenary troops  known  as  Armagnacs.^     A  mere 

1  So  called  from  their  leader,  the  Count  of  Armagnac,  by 
whom  they  had  been  enlisted  to  serve  in  the  war  waged  by 
Charles  VII.  of  France  against  England. 


78  Annals  of  Switzerland 

handful    of   Swiss,   numbering   not  more  than 

«  ,  ^  two  thousand,  met  his  army  near 
Battle  of  '  -' 

St.  Jacob  on  St.  Jacob  on  the  Birs,  Aug.  26, 
1444,  and,  with  the  cry  "  Our  souls 
to  God,  our  bodies  to  the  Armagnacs,"  rushing 
dauntlessly  into  the  fray,  they  fought  with  the 
heroic  valor  of  their  race  until  nearly  all  were 
slain.  The  remnant  who  escaped  were  disci- 
plined with  Spartan  rigor,  and  proscribed 
throughout  the  land.  But  the  victory  was 
dearly  bought  by  the  French,  and  the  victors 
dared  not  advance.  "A  more  obstinate  people 
Treaty  with  cannot  be  found,"  wrote  the  Dauphin 
France.  ^q   Charles  VII.     A  treaty  1  negoti- 

ated by  Louis  —  the  first  ever  concluded  be- 
tween the  Swiss  and  the  house  of  Valois  — 
secured  the  confederacy  against  further  moles- 
tation from  France;  but  there  were  many  fruit- 
less attempts  to  effect  a  compromise  in  home 
interests  before  unity  was  restored.  Stussi  and 
Itel  Reding  were  both  dead,  the  Emperor  weary 
of  the  war,  and  through  the  arbitration  of  Louis, 
Elector-Palatine,  and  other  princes,  the  founda- 
tion of  a  general  peace  was  laid  at  Constance 
in   1450.     The  league  of  Zurich  with  Austria 

*  In  this  treaty,  negotiated  between  the  French  and  the  Swiss, 
at  Ensisheim  Oct.  28,  1444,  the  name  "  canton  "  first  appears 
as  a  designation  for  individual  states  of  the  confederacy. 


"The  Everlasting  Compact**        79 

was  pronounced  contrary  to  the  obligations  of 
the  confederacy,  therefore  null  and  void,  and 
Toggenburg  was  left  in  the  possession  of  a  rela- 
tive of  the  late  Count,  who  subsequently  sold  it 
to  the  Abbot  of  St.  Gall. 

A  ratification  of  the  treaty  consummated  with 
France  in  1444  not  only  riveted  the  friendly 
relations  between  that  country  and  Switzer- 
land, but  induced  Charles  VII.  to  xrucewiui 
undertake  the  office  of  an  arbitrator  -^nsti^- 
between  Austria  and  the  confederacy.  Through 
his  intervention,  a  truce  between  these  habitual 
foes  was  arranged  in  1459;  but  it  was  signed 
only  to  be  broken,  rearranged,  and  broken 
again. 

Austrian  knight-robbers  plundered  the  bag- 
gage of  merchants  in  Switzerland;  the  Swiss 
retaliated  by  laying  waste  the  Austrian  lands 
in  Thurgau,  Alsace,  and  the  Schwarzwald,  and 
besieging  the  town  of  Waldshut  on  giegeof 
the  Rhine.  A  lengthy  war  seemed  waidshnt. 
again  imminent,  until  the  influence  of  neigh- 
boring princes  secured  a  peace  in  which  Sigis- 
mund  of  Austria  guaranteed  to  the  Swiss  all 
the  territory  they  had  conquered,  and  promised 
to  ransom  Waldshut  by  the  payment  of  one 
hundred  thousand  florins.  This  sum  he  was 
unable  to  pay;  the  Emperor  approved  the  con- 


8o  Annals  of  Switzerland 

tract,  but  contributed  advice  only,  and  the  Duke 
made  application  for  pecuniary  aid  to  his  ally, 
Louis  XL,  who,  on  the  death  of  Charles  VII., 
had  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  France. 

Louis,   with  whom   a   chronic   condition   of 

bankruptcy  was   an    inevitable  result    of    his 

insatiable  delight   in  intrigue,   sug- 

Iiitrig:iies.  o  o 

gested  Charles  of  Burgundy  as  the 
banker  most  opulent,  and  the  ally  most  service- 
able. A  double  motive  was  always  essential 
to  this  sovereign  of  France,  of  whom  contem- 
poraries said  that "  he  slept  with  one  eye  closed 
during  war,  but  kept  both  open  in  time  of 
peace ;  "  and  Louis  aimed  at  involving  Charles 
in  complications  with  the  Swiss,  hoping,  by  the 
promotion  of  strife  between  the  confederacy 
and  Burgundy,  effectually  to  weaken  an  enemy 
whom  he,  both  by  deeply-laid  schemes  and 
through  open  hostilities,  had  striven  in  vain 
to  humiliate. 

Charles  of  Burgundy,  the  "  Napoleon  of  the 
middle  ages,"  cherished  secretly  a  project  for 
Anstrian  the  establishment  of  a  new  Burgun- 
medto*"^'  ^^^"  kingdom,  which  should  equal  in 
Burgundy.  extent  the  realm  dismembered  by 
Charlemagne.  Realizing  that  these  plans  would 
be  promoted  by  possession  of  the  Rhineland, 
he     readily    agreed    to     advance     the    funds 


-  -il 


"The  Everlasting  Compact"         8i 

solicited,  together  with  an  additional  sum  for 
the  private  use  of  the  indigent  Duke.  At  St. 
Omer,  in  May,  1469,  the  chief  hereditary  pos- 
sessions of  the  Hapsburgs  on  both  sides  of  the 
Rhine  were  mortgaged  to  Burgundy,  "  with  full 
enjoyment  of  all  rights  of  lordship  and  sove- 
reignty," subject  only  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
Duke  of  Austria  in  redeeming  them. 

The  debt  to  the  Swiss  was  then  discharged, 
and  the  Emperor  disannulled  the  treaty  of 
Waldshut.      Charles    intrusted    the 

Hagenbacli. 

administration  of  his  newly-acquired 
territory  to  Peter  von  Hagenbach,  who  had 
proved  his  devotion  to  the  interests  of  Bur- 
gundy through  years  of  service,  but  whose 
predilection  for  absolutism  in  the  rule  of 
the  nobility  rendered  his  conduct  of  affairs 
so  tyrannical,  that  the  borrowed  appellation, 
"Scourge  of  God,"  distinguished  him.  Com- 
plaints of  the  severity  of  his  government  were 
sent  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  but  availed 
nothing,  for,  confident  that  his  possession  of  the 
land  would  be  permanent,  Charles  had  resolved 
to  subject  it  to  a  rule  more  arbitrary  than  that 
of  the  Hapsburgs.  When  his  designs  became 
evident  to  the  free  cities  of  Alsace,  they  deter- 
mined to  unite  in  a  defiance  of  the  authority 
thus  gravely  menacing  their  freedom;  and,  as 
6 


82  Annals  of  Switzerland 

the  readiest  means  of  effecting  their  purpose, 
they  agreed  to  furnish  Sigismund  with  the 
means  of  redeeming  his  property. 

But  the  designs  of  the  Duke  of  Austria,  in 
entering  upon  the  contract  with  Burgundy,  had 
reached  beyond  the  circle  of  protection  afforded 
by  the  alliance.  Sigismund  discerned  in  his 
valorous  ally,  not  a  mediator  between  Austria 
and  the  Swiss,  but  a  subjugator  of  those  hered- 
itary antagonists  of  his  house.  By  the  terms 
of  the  league  of  St.  Omer,  the  Swiss  were 
warned  against  molesting  the  Austrians,  who 
were  thenceforth  under  Burgundian  protection, 
although,  unless  hostilities  were  provoked  by 
overt  or  secret  acts  toward  his  ally,  the  rela- 
tions between  Charles  and  the  confederacy 
were  to  continue  on  the  same  amicable  footing 
as  formerly.  When,  therefore,  Sigismund  de- 
manded that  "a  great  and  good  army"  should 
be  despatched  against  the  Swiss,  the  Duke 
replied  that  any  act  of  aggression  on  his  part 
would  be  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  rela- 
tions existing  between  Burgundy  and  the  con- 
federacy, and  only  in  case  of  provocation  from 
the  latter  would  a  hostile  attitude  toward  them 
be  justifiable. 

Failing  in  every  effort  to  achieve  his  purpose 
through  his  alliance  with  Burgundy,  Sigismund 


"The  Everlasting  Compact"         83 

then  secretly  projected  another  intrigue,  and 
again  sent  emissaries  to  the  Court  of  France. 
At  the  time  of  the  first  Austrian  embassy,  the 
Swiss,  fearing  some  arrangement  inimical  to 
their  interests,  had  also  despatched  ^he 
ambassadors,  to  mediate,  if  neces-  i>iesbachs. 
sary,  in  their  favor.  These  men,  the  Dies- 
bachs,  prominent  citizens  of  Bern,  had  ingra- 
tiated themselves  with  the  French  king,  and 
Louis,  who  never  permitted  an  opportunity  for 
the  exercise  of  craft  to  escape  him,  beguiled 
them  into  acting  as  his  instruments  upon  their 
return  home.  When  the  second  proposition 
from  Sigismund  was  received,  it  was  combined 
in  the  mind  of  Louis  with  the  design  of  inveig- 
ling the  Swiss  into  his  alliance,  and  present- 
ing them  as  a  strong  bulwark  of  defence 
against  Burgundy.  Sigismund's  offensive  de- 
signs toward  the  Swiss  were  subordinated  to 
these  projects,  and  the  French  king,  through 
the  influence  he  was  secretly,  and  by  Le^^g 
bribery,  able  to  exert  at  Bern,  con-  between 

France, 

summated  his  scheme  of  uniting  Austria,  and 
Austria,  France,  and  the  confed- 
eracy in  an  alliance  antagonistic  to  Burgundy. 
The  union  promised  nothing  to  the  Swiss,  and 
the  consent  of  a  majority  of  the  cantons  was  at 
first  withheld ;  but  French  gold  at  length  pre- 


84  Annals  of  Switzerland 

vailed  to  influence  all  save  Unterwalden;  and 
one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  years  after  Morgar- 
ten,  eighty-eight  years  after  Sempach,  an  "  eter- 
nal covenant  "  was  signed  at  Feldkirch,  between 
Austria  and  the  confederacy,  under  the  guar- 
antee of  France.  In  this  compact,  Sigismund 
renounced  all  claim  in  Switzerland  to  former 
Austrian  prerogatives,  and  exchanged  with  the 
cantons  pledges  of  friendship  and  support.  He 
covenanted  to  redeem  the  mortgaged  lands  with 
gold  furnished  by  Alsace,  and  a  general  defiance 
to  Burgundy  was  declared. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

WAR  WITH   BURGUNDY 
1474-1475 

Charles  the  Bold  had  long  been  suspicious 
of  clandestine  dealings  on  the  part  of  Sigis- 
mund,  but  the  envoys  from  Austria  indignantly 
repudiated  every  implication  of  treachery,  and 
denied  the  intimation  that  their  sovereign's 
intercourse  with  the  French  might  be  inimical 
to  the  interests  of  Burgundy.  The  fidelity  of 
the  Swiss  was  presumably  secured,  for  the 
Duke's  officers  in  Alsace  had  received  strict 
commands  to  preserve  inviolate  every  preroga- 
tive claimed  by  the  confederacy. 

When,  therefore,  the  Alsatian  towns  advanced 
the  sum  for  payment  of  the  mortgage,  spurred 
to  action  by  a  report  that  at  Treves  the  Duke 
had  been  crowned  King  of  Burgundy,  Charles 
refused  to  receive  the  proffered  gold,  or  to 
relinquish  possession  of  the  territory.  In  a 
revolt  at  Breisach,  Hagenbach  was  seized  and 
carried  before  a  tribunal  which  included  some 


86  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Swiss  officials.  Accused  of  many  private  mis- 
demeanors, as  well  as  of  violating  the  fran- 
chises of  the  people  under  his  government,  he 
Death  of  was  cruelly  tortured,  condemned,  and 
Hagenbach.  publicly  beheaded  (1474).  Charles, 
although  enraged,  postponed  his  retaliation 
while  occupied  with  affairs  incident  to  the 
extension  of  his  dominions  on  the  Rhine. 

Louis,  in  the  meantime,  had  won  over  the 
Emperor  Frederick  V.,  who,  as  soon  as  affairs 
between  Austria  and  Burgundy  had  reached  an 
open  rupture,  summoned  the  confederates  to 
Messageto  take  part  in  the  approaching  conflict. 
BurgTindy.  ^j-  Bern,  where  executive  authority 
for  the  confederacy  had  been  vested,  a  message 
to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  prepared,  and 
inserted,  after  the  usual  custom,  in  a  split  in 
the  herald's  staff.  It  announced  that,  in  obe- 
dience to  the  command  of  the  Emperor,  and  on 
account  of  the  invasion  of  Sigismund's  terri- 
tory, whose  adherents  they  declared  themselves, 
the  Swiss  were  thenceforth  enemies  to  their 
quondam  ally,  and  in  substantiation  of  this 
announcement  they  were  ready  to  execute  hos- 
tile purposes  against  him  "by  slaying,  by  burn- 
ing, by  plundering,  in  the  day  or  in  the  night. " 

Thus  far,  the  King  of  France  had  executed 
with  perfect  success  the  scheme  he  had  so  care- 


War  with  Burgundy  87 

fully  concocted. "  He  had  succeeded  in  provid- 
ing himself  with  valiant,  skilful,  and  reliable 
troops,  secretly  under  his  control,  through  their 
greed  of  gold,  while  ostensibly  they  were  mar- 
shalled against  the  foe  of  the  empire,  in  obedi- 
ence to  their  duty  as  imperial  subjects. 

Before  the  letter  to  Charles  had  reached  its 
destination,  troops  from  Bern,  with  a  small 
force  from  Freyburg  and  Solothurn,  had  set 
forth  upon  an  expedition  into  the  enemy's  terri- 
tory. With  five  hundred  Austrian  cavalry  the 
army  numbered  about  eight  thousand  men,  all 
of  whom  adopted  as  their  badge  the  white  cross 
of  the  Swiss  confederacy.  The  fort-  Attack  npon 
ress  of  H^ricourt,  in  Franche-Comt^,  H6icourt. 
was  besieged,  and  a  Burgundian  force,  under 
Henri  de  Neuchatel,  governor  of  the  district, 
advanced  to  its  relief.  The  savage  assault  of 
the  Swiss  scattered  this  army  in  immediate 
flight,  and  secured  the  capitulation  of  the 
fortress.  Louis  of  France  was  profuse  in  the 
expression  of  pleasure  and  commendation,  but 
the  more  tangible  aid  of  French  troops  was 
still  delayed,  and  when  the  money  promised  for 
the  payment  of  the  Swiss  soldiers  failed  to  be 
delivered,  Bern  became  uneasy,  and,  with  five 
other  cantons,  expressed  openly  her  suspicions 
of  the  good  faith  of  the  French  ally.     Com- 


88  Annals  of  Switzerland 

plications  increased  when  Yolande,  Queen- 
Regent  of  Savoy,  who  had  been  in  alliance  with 
Yolande  of  both  Burgundy  and  the  confederacy, 
Savoy.  allowed  the  passage  through  her  terri- 

tory of  Lombard  troops  on  their  way  to  join  the 
army  of  Charles  the  Bold.  The  demand  sent 
forth  from  Bern,  that  Savoy  should  dissolve  her 
treaty  with  the  Duke,  on  the  ground  of  his 
antagonism  both  to  the  empire  and  to  France 
—  to  whose  king  Yolande  was  sister  —  was  met 
by  many  remonstrances  from  the  ingenious 
queen,  whose  agents,  profiting  by  the  divided 
opinions  in  the  cantons,  concerning  the  treaty 
with  France,  endeavored  to  stir  up  strife  in  the 
Gaieas  confederacy.     Yolande  courted,  and 

Sforza.  obtained  for  herself  and  for  Charles, 

the  alliance  of  Gaieas  Sforza,  Duke  of  Milan; 
but  this  support  failed  to  prove  the  safeguard 
for  Savoy  that  the  Queen  had  anticipated.  The 
demand  that  she  should  renounce  the  alliance 
with  Burgundy  and  unite  her  strength  with 
that  of  the  confederacy  was  repeated,  and  upon 
the  receipt  of  her  absolute  refusal  a  severe 
punishment  was  threatened,  and  subsequently 
executed. 

In  the  conduct  of  these  affairs,  Bern,  influ- 
enced by  a  private  retainer  from  Louis,  had 
frequently  acted  upon  her  own  responsibility, 


War  with  Burgundy  89 

without  waiting  for  the  sanction  of  the  other 
cantons.  As  hired  troops  in  the  service  of  the 
King  of  France,  the  confederates  considered 
themselves  summoned  to  the  battlefield  at  his 
command,  and  with  sublime  confidence  in  the 
assertion,  "  A  handful  of  Swiss  is  a  match  for 
an  army,"  they  feared  no  foreign  foe.  But 
they  regarded  their  compact  as  one  for  mer- 
cenary service,  without  responsibility,  and  they 
were  unaffected  by  incidental  circumstances  of 
the  war,  that  might  be  of  supreme  importance 
either  to  Austria  or  the  empire.  Sigismund's 
call  for  troops  to  protect  Alsace  was  disre- 
garded; but  when  the  safety  was  threatened  of 
a  small  force  from  Bern  and  Solothurn,  which, 
on  a  predatory  excursion,  had  entered  Burgun- 
dian  territory,  the  alarum  from  Bern  summoned 
from  Luzern,  Schwyz,  and  other  cantons,  swift 
aid  to  meet  the  emergency.  This  danger 
past,  the  Diet  refused  to  continue  their  pro- 
vision for  reinforcing  the  army;  but  Diesbach, 
who  held  command  of  troops  already  in  the 
field,  projected  a  private  expedition  into  the 
Jura,  with  the  aim  of  possessing  himself  of 
territory  long  coveted  by  Bern.  At  Orbe,  a 
castle  —  belonging  to  the  house  of  Chalons, 
which  paid  allegiance  to  Burgundy  —  was 
attacked  and  taken,  although  the  garrison  re- 


90 


Annals  of  Switzerland 


sisted  until  every  man  had  been  slain.  The 
surrender  of  the  town  speedily  followed,  and 
the  terrified  inhabitants  of  neighboring  dis- 
tricts offered  slight  opposition  to  the  capture 
of  places  of  inferior  strength.  The  army  then 
marched  homeward,  greeted  everywhere  along 
their  route  with  hospitable  entertainment  from 
the  trembling  populace,  who  sought  thus  to  pro- 
pitiate those  whom  they  had  formerly  regarded 
as  allies  and  protectors. 

Meanwhile  Louis  XL  had  found  it  politic  to 
send  troops  of  his  own  into  the  field,  but  he 
continued  to  entreat  the  Swiss  auxiliaries, 
whom  he  characterized  as  "the  bravest  of 
Christians,"  to  hasten  to  his  assistance.  A 
call  for  troops  came  from  Sigismund  also,  who 
complained  that  he  had  been  unable  to  obtain 
from  the  Swiss  that  aid  in  the  prosecution  of 
the  war  against  Burgundy  which  the  terms  of 
their  treaty  had  authorized  him  to  anticipate. 
In  the  Diet  summoned  at  Luzern,  to  deliberate 
upon  the  response  to  this  imperial  demand,  the 
majority  of  cantons  voted  against  compliance 
with  its  terms,  and  reiterated  their  assertion, 
that  the  compact  bound  them  only  to  the  duties 
specified  in  their  treaty  with  France. 

While  the  discussion  upon  this  matter  was 
pending,  Alsace  was  threatened  by  a  Burgundian 


War  with  Burgundy  91 

army,  and  the  inhabitants,  in  desperation,  sent 
envoys  to  the  Swiss,  offering,  with  their  "  eter- 
nal gratitude,"  what  proved  more  influential  with 
those  mercenary  neighbors,  —  a  large  recom- 
pense in  money  for  troops  whose  very  name 
had  become  potent  to  terrify  the  enemy.  Bern 
promised  aid,  and  a  force  under  command  of 
Diesbach  was  soon  on  its  way  to  the  imperilled 
district.  This  expedition  proved  the  final  one 
in  which  the  veteran  statesman  engaged,  for, 
while  weakened  from  an  accidental  Death  of 
wound,  he  was  attacked  by  cholera,  iJiesbach. 
and  died  after  a  short  illness.  A  tablet  above 
his  tomb,  in  the  church  of  St.  Vincent,  at  Bern, 
records  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  French 
alliance  and  of  the  pension  system.  Soon  after 
his  death  a  pestilence  ended  the  campaign,  in 
which  the  Swiss  had  been  mainly  victorious. 

During  this  period,  Yolande  of  Savoy,  unaided 
by  her  ally,  the  Duke  of  Milan,  had  anticipated 
the  execution  of  the  vengeance  threatened  by 
Bern.  Under  the  pretext  of  military  necessity, 
Bernese  troops  seized  places  in  the  Valais,  and 
looked  with  covetous  eyes  upon  adjacent  terri- 
tory. A  missive  addressed  to  the  other  confed- 
erates asserted  that  the  treacherous  conduct  of 
the  Count  of  Romont,  who  had  plotted  to  expel 
the  Swiss  from  the  Valais,  was  sufficient  reason 


92  Annals  of  Switzerland 

for  despatching  another  army  into  Savoy;  but 
Expedition  before  notice  of  the  project  could  be 
into  Savoy,  received  by  their  allies,  the  Bernese 
troops  set  forth  upon  the  expedition.  Contriv- 
ing to  arrive  at  Morat  under  cover  of  darkness, 
they  demanded  the  immediate  submission  of 
the  garrison ;  a  majority  in  the  town,  paralyzed 
by  terror  of  the  Swiss  arms,  voted  to  yield,  and 
with  daylight  the  exultant  band  marched  toward 
Estavayer.  The  commandant  at  that  place,  a 
knight  descended  from  the  founders  of  the 
town,  threatened  death  to  any  one  suggesting 
surrender;  but  while  an  assault  upon  the  walls 
was  in  progress,  a  hanging  rope  above  the  mar- 
gin of  the  lake  furnished  means  whereby  a 
Swiss  soldier  gained  the  ramparts  of  the  town, 
and,  swiftly  followed  by  comrades,  diverted  the 
attention  of  the  gateway  defenders,  until  an 
entrance  there  had  been  forced.  A  massacre 
"Th  Bad  ^^^  plunder  ensued,  disgraceful  to 
Day  of  the  annals  of  Switzerland,  and  many 

EfftflviLYcr- ' ' 

misfortunes  that  subsequently  befell 

Bern  were  regarded  as  retributive  justice  for 
"the  bad  day  of  Estavayer." 

Insubordination  among  the  troops  was  a 
natural  result  of  the  licence  permitted  on  this 
occasion,  and  the  commanders  found  them- 
selves continually   importuned  for  redress  by 


War  with  Burgundy  93 

those  whose  possessions  had  been  despoiled,  or 
whose  rights  had  been  invaded  by  the  soldiery. 
But  onward  swept  the  destroying  bands,  Terror 
flying  before  them.  Yverdon,  Orbe,  Les  Cl^es, 
were  occupied  after  short  sieges ;  and,  reinforced 
by  troops  from  other  cantons,  gathered  at  the 
summons  of  the  diet,  the  army  approached 
Geneva. 

Toward  this  city  Bern  had  cherished  a  special 
grudge,  since  her  envoy,  Diesbach,  had  there 
suffered  insult  on  his  return  from  Paris.  The 
origin  of  the  trouble  might  be  traced  to  the 
restrictions  placed  by  Louis  XI.  upon  the  right 
of  transit  through  France  to  Geneva,  when  fairs 
in  that  city  had  attracted  French  merchants. 
In  consequence  of  those  restrictions  the  trade  of 
Geneva  had  been  diverted  to  Lyons,  Geneva 
whereupon  Savoy  had  prohibited  pas-  tJ»«atene4. 
sage  through  her  territory,  making  exception 
only  in  favor  of  the  Swiss.  Geneva  requested 
the  intervention  of  Bern  on  her  behalf,  and  the 
failure  of  a  satisfactory  adjustment  of  affairs 
was  ascribed  to  Diesbach,  then  ambassador  to 
France,  who  was  believed  to  have  been  bribed 
to  act  in  the  interest  of  Louis.  Consequently 
his  arrival  in  Geneva  was  the  signal  for  an 
affront,  for  which  Bern  had  demanded  large 
indemnity. 


94  Annals  of  Switzerland 

The  army  marched  along  the  shore  of  the 
lake,  took  quiet  possession  of  Morges,  and 
advanced  toward  Geneva.  That  city,  destitute 
of  fortifications  and  abounding  in  wealth,  was 
in  abject  terror  at  the  approach  of  the  foe. 
Deputies  sent  to  propitiate  the  invaders  offered 
hostages  for  the  payment  of  twenty-six  thousand 
crowns,  and  the  Swiss,  like  Alaric  the  Goth, 
withdrew  their  rapacious  bands,  whose  detailed 
deeds  in  this  campaign  might  rank  with  those 
of  the  savage  hordes  that  threatened  ancient 
Rome. 

Lausanne  was  menaced,  but  secured  herself 
against  attack  by  the  payment  of  a  heavy  ran- 
som, and  abasement  from  a  condition  of  almost 
entire  freedom  under  Savoy  to  one  of  vassalage 
to  the  Swiss.  The  army  then  turned  home- 
ward, having  in  three  weeks  secured  dominion 
over  all  of  Savoy  north  of  the  Alps.  Conjointly 
with  Freyburg,  which  in  the  greater  portion  of 
the  campaign  had  acted  in  conjunction  with 
Bern,  the  Swiss  then  established  garrisons 
throughout  the  district,  and  Rudolf  von  Erlach, 
the  younger,  was  established  at  Lausanne,  to 
act,  in  co-operation  with  the  deputy  from  Frey- 
burg, as  vice-regent  of  the  conquered  territory. 


DOMINION 
oy 
BURGUNDY  ^ 

CHARLES  THE  BOLD. 


CHAPTER  IX 

GRANDSON,   MORAT,   AND   NANCY 
1475-1477 

During  months  of  military  activity  on  the  part 
of  the  Swiss,  no  communication  had  been  re- 
ceived from  the  French  king,  and  when  the 
half-yearly  pensions  failed  to  appear,  Bern  real- 
ized that  her  influence  would  not  long  be  effec- 
tive in  maintaining  a  war  so  unpopular  with 
the  majority  of  cantons.  Through  the  diplo- 
macy of  Rudolf  of  Hochberg,  Margrave  of 
Neuch^tel,  whose  estates  lay  open  to  incur- 
sions from  both  combatants,  a  truce  between 
the  Burgundians  and  Swiss  was  projected ;  but 
the  negotiations  were  checked  by  a  demand 
from  Charles  that  full  restitution  should  be 
allowed  for  injuries  inflicted  either  upon  him- 
self or  his  allies. 

An  increasing  dissatisfaction  with  the  con- 
duct of  affairs  became  manifest  in  the  diet,  and 
from  Bern  and  Luzern  letters  were  sent  to  the 
•Swiss  ambassador  at  Paris,  Jost  von  Silenen, 


96  Annals  of  Switzerland 

reminding  him  of  the  omission  of  the  payment 
promised  by  France,  and  urging  the  exertion  of 
every  influence  to  effect  a  prompt  fulfilment  of 
the  contract  between  the  King  and  the  confed- 
erates. The  reply  of  the  ambassador  brought 
assurances  of  Louis's  good  faith,  and  emphatic 
reassertions  of  his  resolution  to  adhere  to  his 
covenant  with  the  Swiss  and  to  maintain  his 
antagonism  to  Burgundy  "at  the  risk  of  life 
and  of  power." 

But  before  anything  beyond  promises  of  aid 
had  been  received,  the  Swiss  garrison  at  Yver- 
don  was  summoned  to  defence  against  an  attack 
from  the  Burgundians;  and  although,  aided  by 
other  confederates,  they  forced  the  enemy  to 
retire,  the  attitude  of  neighboring  places  dur- 
ing that  crisis  revealed  the  disposition  of  the 
entire  region  to  rise  in  revolt.  As  the  French 
money  was  reported  to  be  coming  that  way,  a 
necessity  for  more  securely  fortifying  the  newly- 
acquired  territory  became  evident. 

Charles,  aware  that  the  war  was  unpopular 
with  the  majority  of  cantons,  believed  that 
weakness  and  disunion  would  attend  any  efforts 
to  prolong  hostilities,  could  he  once  succeed  in 
humiliating  the  military  pride  of  the  Swiss 
nation.  Realizing  the  importance  of  impress- 
ing the  enemy,  at  the  first  encounter,  with  the 


Grandson,   Morat,  and  Nancy        97 

strength  and  valor  of  the  Burgundian  army, 
his  arrangements  were  completed  with  deliber- 
ation, while  the  confederates,  ignorant  of  his 
designs,  vacillated  in  purpose,  and  marched 
from  point  to  point  in  anticipation  of  attack. 
Too  late  to  fortify  their  possessions  along  his 
route,  they  realized  that  Bern  was  the  enemy's 
objective  point ;  Lausanne  and  other  towns  were 
swiftly  secured  by  the  invading  army,  and  in  a 
few  days  the  entire  territory  recently  taken 
from  Savoy  was  lost  to  the  confederacy. 

The  deliberations  of  the  diet  assembled  at 
Bern  were  interrupted  by  tidings  of  these 
calamities.  Orders  for  troops,  delayed  on 
account  of  the  lack  of  unanimity  among  the 
cantons,  were  now  hastily  issued,  and  Bern 
announced  her  intention  of  taking  the  field  at 
once,  in  conjunction  with  Freyburg  and  Solo- 
thurn.  Messengers  were  despatched  to  the 
other  cantons,  to  conjure  them,  with  a  torrent 
of  entreaties,  to  hasten,  "  without  delay,  with  all 
their  power,  and  without  any  stop,"  and  prom- 
ising, for  immediate  aid,  "recompense  in  all 
future  time,  without  sparing  life  or  prosperity." 

At  first,  even  these  urgent  calls  met  slight 

response  from  the  allies,  who  reflected  that  the 

parsimony  of  Bern   had   led  them   into  a  war 

against  which  the  greater  number  of  cantons 

7 


^8  Annals  of  Switzerland 

had  protested,  and,  although  troops  were  ordered 
to  assemble,  it  remained  with  the  council  at 
Luzern  to  decide  upon  the  number  to  be  sent 
into  the  field.  But  soon  the  progress  of  events 
left  no  room  for  doubt  of  the  real  extremity  to 
which  Bern  was  reduced,  and  then  the  action 
of  the  confederates  was  prompt  and  decided. 

The  Duke  of  Burgundy  had  advanced  to 
Grandson.  That  town  had  been  strengthened 
by  the  garrison  from  Yverdon,  who,  barely  in 
time  to  escape  the  rapidly-approaching  foe, 
received  commands  to  evacuate  their  first  posi- 
siegeof  tion.     But,  even  with  this  addition, 

Grandson.  ^\^q  force  at  Grandson  was  insufficient 
for  defence;  the  town  was  quickly  taken,  and 
its  defenders  chased  into  the  castle,  where  they 
were  besieged  by  the  Burgundian  army. 

The  council  at  Bern  remained  in  session  day 
and  night.  Messages  were  sent  to  Louis  XL, 
expressing  continued  confidence  in  his  promises, 
but  urging  the  great  and  immediate  need  of 
active  aid  from  France.  Requests  for  help 
were  also  sent  to  Austria,  but  failed  to  elicit 
even  a  sympathetic  response  from  Sigismund. 
The  Emperor  Frederick,  always  famous  for  his 
readiness  to  leave  his  allies  in  the  lurch,  had 
deserted  the  confederates  openly,  and  without 
a  pretence   of   excuse.     He  had   concluded   a 


Grandson,   Morat,  and  Nancy        99 

treaty  with  Charles,  in  which  no  reference  was 
made,  either  to  France,  Austria,  the  towns  of 
Alsace,  or  the  Swiss  confederacy.  This  treaty, 
"remarkable  for  its  omissions,"  had  been  rat- 
ified by  a  promise  of  the  hand  of  Mary  of 
Burgundy,  the  only  child  of  the  Duke,  for 
Maximilian  of  Austria,  the  Emperor's  son. 

The  little  force  at  Grandson  maintained  a 
brave  defence  in  the  face  of  many  disasters, 
until  they  became  convinced  that  surrender 
there  was  no  hope  of  succor  from  "*  Grandson, 
the  confederates.  Then  an  unconditional  sur- 
render was  forced  from  them,  and,  four  hundred 
strong,  they  were  doomed  to  expiate  the  mas- 
sacres of  Estavayer  and  Orbe.  Sentence  of 
death  was  executed  upon  all ;  many  were  hung 
upon  the  trees  around  Grandson,  others  drowned 
in  the  waters  of  the  lake.  Too  late,  their 
brother-confederates  advanced  to  the  rescue, 
—  an  army  of  nineteen  hundred  men,  includ- 
ing troops  from  Freyburg  and  from  Solothurn. 
Their  route  to  Grandson  lay  past  the  castle  of 
Vauxmarcus,  owned  by  a  vassal  of  the  Count 
of  Neuch^tel.  At  the  summons  of  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy  it  had  yielded  to  him,  and  a  body 
of  his  archers  now  formed  the  garrison.  Near 
at  hand,  the  main  army  of  Burgundians  were 
strongly  intrenched,  and  might  have  awaited  in 


loo  Annals  of  Switzerland 

security  the  attack  of  the  Swiss.  But,  believ- 
Battie  of  i"&  that  it  was  the  aim  of  the  con- 
Grandson.  federates  to  dispute  his  passage  to 
Neuch^tel,  Charles  made  an  effort  to  secure 
the  mountain-pass  over  which  the  route  lay. 
Some  detachments  from  Bern,  eager  for  con- 
flict, hastened  forward  to  occupy  a  position  of 
advantage  at  the  side  of  the  pass,  and  the  Bur- 
gundians  vainly  endeavored  to  dislodge  them. 
Charles  then  resorted  to  artifice;  and,  to  lure 
the  enemy  into  a  position  where  the  superior 
numbers  of  his  own  troops  might  prove  more 
effective,  he  drew  off  the  latter  in  a  pretended 
retreat.  The  over-confident  Swiss  fell  readily 
into  the  snare,  and  soon  found  themselves  sur- 
rounded by  the  enemy.  The  conflict  then 
waxed  desperate;  but  at  a  critical  moment  loud 
blasts  from  the  mountain-side  startled  the  com- 
batants and  reanimated  the  confederates,  who 
recognized  the  familiar  tones  of  the  horns  of 
Uri  and  Unterwalden.  The  Burgundians,  panic- 
stricken,  mistook  a  sudden  motion  of  their  cav- 
alry for  the  signal  to  retreat,  and,  raising  the 
cry,  "  Sauve  qui  pent ! "  they  fled  precipitately, 
while  Charles  made  vain  attempts  to  rally  them. 
Ere  long  the  field  was  deserted  by  Burgundian 
troops,  and,  almost  by  force,  attendants  urged 
the  Duke  away. 


Grandson,   Morat,  and  Nancy      loi 

His  camp  —  a  luxurious  city  —  greeted  the 
astonished  gaze  of  the  victors.  The  old  chron- 
icler, Philippe  de  Commiiieg,;  has  described  in 
glowing  terms  the  treasures  there  exhibited. 
With  the  intention  of  hpjdjng  GOTurt.  the.iUQxj: 
season  in  Savoy,  the  Duke  had  brought  with 
him  the  crown  regalia,  and  ceremonial  appur- 
tenances of  his  court.  The  sword  of  state, 
incrusted  with  precious  gems,  immense  dia- 
monds, treasure  manuscripts,  beautiful  tapes- 
tries, and  robes  of  costliest  fabric,  were  articles 
of  booty,  with  six  hundred  standards,  ten  thou- 
sand pack  horses,  and  arms  in  corresponding 
quantity.  Gold  is  reported  to  have  been  divided 
by  the  hatful;  but  some  authorities  maintain 
that  any  private  appropriation  of  the  plunder 
was  forbidden,  under  the  severest  penalty,  and 
that  only  after  several  years  had  elapsed,  and  a 
full  inventory  of  the  captured  wealth  had  been 
completed,  was  division  and  distribution  made. 

One  of  the  diamonds,  after  passing  through 
many  hands,  was  finally  purchased  for  the  papal 
crown,  another  rested  in  the  treasury  of  Vienna, 
while  a  third  was  returned  to  India,  whence  it 
had  come. 

After  the  victory  of  Grandson,  Vaud,  which 
on  the  approach  of  Charles  had  been  overrun  by 
Savoy,  was  reoccupied  by  the  Swiss,  and  French- 


I02  Annals  of  Switzerland 

speaking  districts  came  thus  for  the  first  time 
into  permanent  contact  with  the  confederacy. 

The  influenpe  .-of  .France  procured  the  sub- 
sequent restoration  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
territory,  whjen  the  Duke  of  Savoy  renounced 
authority  previously  exercised  over  Freyburg. 

Far  from  believing  his  fortune  ruined  by  the 
defeat  of  his  troops,  Charles  immediately  began 
preparations  for  another  struggle,  issued  com- 
mands for  the  return  of  all  fugitives,  levied 
throughout  his  dominions  the  tax  of  every  sixth 
penny,  and  compelled  the  enlistment  of  every 
sixth  man.  Recruits  were  also  raised  in  Italy, 
where  arms  and  equipments  were  purchased. 
The  neighborhood  of  Lausanne  was  selected  as 
the  locality  most  advantageous  for  a  camp,  and 
was  promptly  occupied  by  a  force  of  twenty 
thousand  men,  who  were  placed  under  rigid 
discipline.  Charles  declared  his  determination 
to  recover  his  reputation  or  die  in  battle,  and 
from  this  purpose  of  seeking  another  encounter 
with  the  Swiss,  neither  counsel  nor  warning 
could  dissuade  him. 

By  this  time  doubts  were  freely  expressed 
concerning  the  fidelity  of  the  ally  who  so  often 
and  so  vehemently  had  declared  his  resolution 
"to  live  and  die  with  his  most  loved,  most  cher- 
ished friends,  the  Swiss."     Again  the  confed- 


Grandson,   Morat,  and  Nancy     103 

erates  despatched  urgent  messengers  to  France. 
Louis  renewed  his  protestations  of  devotion 
and  his  promises  of  aid,  which  had  been  de- 
layed, he  declared,  only  by  complications  in 
which  he  had  hitherto  been  involved  at  home. 
By  repeated  promises,  flattery,  and  bribes,  the 
council  at  Bern  was  persuaded  again  to  exert 
an  influence  in  the  confederacy  on  behalf  of 
France,  although  the  passing  months  failed  to 
bring  any  tangible  evidence  of  good  faith  from 
their  perfidious  ally.  Ere  long,  with  an  army 
vastly  superior  in  numbers  to  the  one  encoun- 
tered at  Grandson,  the  Burgundians  threatened 

Bern.     Between  Lausanne  and  Bern 

,        ,,  .      ,     ,      .         Morat. 

lay  Morat,   a  town  acquired   during 

the  war,  and,  consequently,  regarded  with  a 
degree  of  indifference  by  a  large  proportion  of 
confederates.  By  Bern,  however,  it  was  looked 
upon  as  "a  bulwark  of  the  territory,"  and  its 
defence  was  resolved  upon.  Adrian  von  Buben- 
berg,  an  honest  and  able  patriot,  was  selected  to 
command  the  place.  He  accepted  the  respon- 
sibility upon  condition  of  being  endowed  with 
authority  to  enforce  unlimited  obedience  to  his 
orders,  and  then  exacted  an  oath  from  the  gar- 
rison that  surrender  should  never  be  suggested. 
Every  preparation  to  defend  the  town  was  com- 
pleted under  Bubenberg's  direction,   and  fre- 


I04  Annals  of  Switzerland 

quent  letters  to  the  council  of  Bern  kept  that 
body  informed  of  the  condition  of  Morat,  while 
the  confederates  were  urged  to  defer  sending  re- 
inforcements, until  an  army  should  be  gathered 
of  sufficient  strength  to  prevent  the  possibility 
of  disaster. 

Bubenberg  soon  found  that  the  siege  was 
likely  to  be  protracted.  The  army  of  Bur- 
siege  of  gundy,  augmented,  according  to  the 
Morat.  most  reliable  authorities,  to  forty 
thousand  men,  arrived  before  Morat  on  the 
9th  of  June,  Charles  anticipating  a  speedy  re- 
duction of  the  town  and  a  swift  advance  upon 
Bern.  That  the  vigilance  of  his  garrison  might 
never  be  relaxed,  Bubenberg  ordered  the  gates 
of  the  city  to  be  left  open,  and  frequent  sallies 
against  the  enemy  were  executed  without  seri- 
ous damage  to  either  side.  The  cannon  of 
Burgundy  proved  more  effective  for  injury, 
and  several  breaches  in  the  city  walls  induced 
Bubenberg  to  despatch  a  messenger  to  hasten 
the  confederate  aid.  These  heralds  found  no 
lack  of  sympathy  among  the  allies;  whatever 
jealousies  had  existed  were  forgotten,  and  even 
Unterwalden,  the  last  canton  to  yield  consent 
to  the  war,  now  rang  her  alarm  bells  and  lighted 
signal  fires. 

When  the  relieving  army  reached  Bern,  the 


Grandson,  Morat,  and  Nancy      105 

entire  city  was  illuminated,  and  before  every 
house  upon  their  route  stood  refreshment  tables. 
Little  time  could  be  allowed  the  weary  troops 
to  recover  from  the  exhaustion  of  their  march, 
for  messages  telling  of  immediate  peril  at 
Morat  had  been  received,  and  crowds  of  weep- 
ing women  urged  forward  the  rescuing  bands. 
The  advice  of  Ulric  Katzy,  landammann  of 
Schwyz,  was  accepted,  and,  avoiding  the  direct 
route  by  which  the  enemy  might  anticipate 
their  approach,  the  army  crossed  the  hills  to 
meet  the  main  body  of  Burgundians. 

Ren^  of  Lorraine  had  joined  the  Swiss,  and 
the  army,  augmented  by  his  troops,  marched 
forward,  nearly  forty  thousand  strong.  Scouts 
had  given  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  early  informa- 
tion of  their  approach,  and  for  hours  his  army 
had  been  posted  in  battle  array,  anticipating 
attack.  But  as  the  day  wore  on,  and  the  recon- 
noitring band  sent  forward  by  the  Swiss  had 
retired  out  of  sight,  Charles  apprehended  no 
immediate  attack,  and  permitted  his  weary 
troops  to  lay  aside  their  arms. 

The  confederates  had  halted  in  the  woods 
while  prayers  were  recited  by  a  soldier  in  each 
band.  During  many  hours  rain  had  been  fall- 
ing heavily,  but  as  the  men  rose  from  their 
knees  the  sun  burst  through  the  clouds,    and 


io6  Annals  of  Switzerland 

John  of  Halwyl,  waving  his  sword  above  his 
head,  shouted,  "See!  God  will  shine  upon  our 
victory!"  Under  the  inspiring  influence  of 
Battle  of  these  words,  the  troops  rushed  for- 
Morat.  ward,  startling  the  enemy  from  their 

relaxation.  Charles  had  no  time  for  arranging 
his  troops  in  the  order  in  which  they  had  been 
trained  to  fight.  With  the  battle-cry,  "  Grand- 
son !  "  the  Swiss  resisted  every  charge  of  the 
Burgundians,  hurling  back  one  division  after 
another  upon  those  forming  in  the  rear.  The 
garrison  of  Morat  made  a  sally  at  the  same 
time,  and,  in  the  words  of  a  Swiss  chronicler, 
"  the  smiting  and  fighting  spread  from  the  lake 
to  the  heights. " 

Fifteen  thousand  of  the  Duke's  army  lay  dead 
upon  the  field,  and  still  he  fought  bravely  with 
a  free  company  of  English.  At  length,  every 
manoeuvre  having  failed,  he  gave  orders  to  fall 
back  to  a  more  favorable  position.  But,  to  the 
demoralized  army,  this  command  was  equivalent 
to  a  signal  for  retreat,  and  over  every  hillside, 
in  wild  confusion,  fled  the  dismayed  soldiers, 
pursued  by  the  triumphant  Swiss,  until  the 
land  ran  red  with  blood,  and  the  lake  had 
engulfed  hundreds.  It  was  impossible  justly 
to  estimate  the  Burgundian  loss,  but  it  has 
been  computed  at  twenty-two  thousand. 


Grandson,   Morat,  and  Nancy      107 

Heralds  of  victory  hastened  to  circulate 
among  the  confederates  the  glorious  tidings, 
and  a  joyous  chiming  of  bells  closed  that 
memorable  day  among  the  Alps.^ 

Charles  the  Bold  had  been  borne  from  the 
battlefield  in  the  press  of  his  flying  troops. 
He  arrived,  toward  morning,  at  Morges,  on 
Lake  Geneva,  where  he  was  met  by  Yolande  of 
Savoy,  to  whom  he  declared  his  still  inflexible 
purpose  of  continuing  the  contest.  The  estates 
of  the  "Two  Burgundies,"  convened  at  Salines 
in  an  eloquent  address  from  their  prince,  were 
exhorted  to  provide  for  the  safety  of  their 
homes,  and  promised  to  supply  whatever  re- 
sources were  necessary. 

The  victorious  and  exultant  confederates, 
raised  to  the  summit  of  military  renown,  were 
recipients  from  every  side  of  congratulations 
and  offers  of  alliance. 


*  Nine  years  later,  Freyburg  and  Bern  combined  to  raise  a 
building  over  the  spot  where  the  remains  of  those  who  fell  in 
the  battle  of  Morat  had  been  deposited.  This  was  several 
times  rebuilt  during  succeeding  centuries,  but  in  1778  the  latest 
edifice  was  destroyed  by  the  Burgundian  division  of  the  French 
army,  and,  the  earth  having  been  washed  away  by  rain,  bleached 
remains  were  exposed  to  view.  Byron  visited  the  place  in  1816 
and  mentions  the  few  bones  remaining  from  which  he  ventured 
to  bring  away  "  as  much  as  may  have  made  a  quarter  of  a 
hero."  Since  the  poet's  visit,  the  remaining  fragments  have 
been  buried  under  an  obelisk  of  marble. 


io8  Annals  of  Switzerland 

At  a  diet  held  at  Freyburg,  an  embassy  of 
congratulation  from  France  was  received. 
After  having  eloquently  expatiated  upon  the 
satisfaction  of  their  monarch  in  the  recent  vic- 
tory at  Morat,  the  envoys  reiterated  the  desire 
of  the  King  that  the  war  be  continued  until  the 
enemy's  strength  should  be  annihilated,  and 
protested  that  it  was  the  purpose  of  France  to 
unite  with  the  Swiss  for  this  end.  The  con- 
federates expressed  their  gratification  in  learn- 
ing that  Louis  was  at  length  willing  to  enter 
upon  the  war,  but,  before  further  action  on 
their  part,  they  desired  to  call  the  attention 
of  the  King  to  the  pension  of  eighty  thousand 
francs  which  had  been  forfeited  by  France 
through  her  failure  to  come  to  the  aid  of  her 
allies  in  the  recent  campaign. 

It  was  proposed  that  an  embassy  should  be 
sent  to  confer  with  the  King  of  France  upon 
Embassy  to  ^^^^  matter,  and  the  heroes  of  Grand- 
France.  sQn  and  Morat  were  delegated  for 
the  mission:  Waldmann  from  Zurich,  Katzy 
and  Reding  from  Schwyz,  Herterstein  and 
Hassfurter  from  Luzern,  Halwyl  and  Buben- 
berg  from  Bern,  Diesbach  and  Albert  von 
Silenen  as  representatives  of  the  other  can- 
tons. At  Paris  they  were  received  with  every 
honor,    and,    during  their    stay,    which  lasted 


Grandson,   Morat,  and  Nancy      109 

many  weeks,  a  continual  round  of  festivities 
entertained  them.  Louis  was  profuse  in  his 
expression  of  grateful  sentiments  toward  the 
Swiss,  and  knew  where  to  emphasize  his  words 
by  private  gifts;  but  when  the  settlement  of 
his  indebtedness  to  the  confederacy  was  dis- 
cussed there  appeared  serious  discrepancies  in 
the  estimates  made  by  the  two  nations.  A 
compromise  was,  however,  arranged,  Louis  hav- 
ing reason  still  to  consider  liberality  toward 
his  allies  the  most  politic  course,  and  the  con- 
ferences were  closed  with  repeated  assurances 
from  the  confederates  of  their  faithful  adherence 
to  France. 

At  the  last  Swiss  diet,  Rene  of  Lorraine  had 
been  accorded  a  position  of  honor,  and  his  peti- 
tion for  help  in  releasing  his  duchy  from  the 
grasp  of  Burgundy  had  obtained  a  hearing, 
although  no  positive  assurances  of  aid  had  been 
given.  Nancy,  the  capital  of  Lorraine,  had 
passed  from  the  possession  of  Ren6  Rene  of 
into  that  of  Burgundy,  and  from  Bur-  i^o'aine. 
gundy  back  to  Lorraine,  as  fortune  had  favored, 
or  deserted  its  King,  during  the  recent  months. 
The  Swiss  fearing  that  Ren^,  if  abandoned, 
might  now  be  forced  into  an  alliance  with  Bur- 
gundy, detrimental  to  their  interests,  agreed 
to  furnish  him  a  force  of  eight  thousand  men. 


no  Annals  of  Switzerland 

stipulating  for  a  portion  of  the  promised  wages 
in  advance,  and  reliable  pledges  for  the  re- 
mainder. Thus  were  the  first  avowedly  mer- 
cenary troops  furnished  by  the  Con- 
federacy, the  French  pension  being 
regarded  as  only  the  seal  of  a  friendly  alliance 
between  the  countries.  The  disorderly  and 
riotous  conduct  of  the  Swiss  bands  gave  Ren6 
good  reason  to  regret  his  bargain,  and  only 
through  a  free  disbursement  of  gold  was  con- 
trol over  them  secured.  With  these  troops 
Battle  of  1^^  advanced  to  the  relief  of  Nancy, 
Mancy.  besieged  a  second  time  by  the  Bur- 

gundians.  Having  received  messages  of  en- 
couragement from  their  King,  the  garrison 
obstinately  refused  to  surrender,  although  re- 
duced to  the  extremities  of  famine.  The  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  having  seen  the  prize  almost 
within  his  grasp,  would  not  withdraw  at  the 
approach  of  the  Swiss,  and  the  troops  who 
could  boast  of  Grandson  and  Morat,  pressing 
eagerly  forward,  with  triumphal  blasts  from 
their  horns,  charged  upon  the  foe.  At  that 
moment  the  Italian  Campobasso,  with  the 
troops  under  his  command  in  the  Burgundian 
army,  treacherously  deserted  to  Ren6.  The 
Duke,  seeing  disaster  and  defeat  for  the  third 
time  inevitable,  chose  death  rather  than  dis- 


Grandson,   Morat,  and  Nancy     iii 

grace.  Plunging  into  the  midst  of  the  surg- 
ing bands,  giving  no  quarter,  seeking  none,  he 
charged  wildly  forward.  The  battle  raged  furi- 
ously, and  ere  it  was  ended  Charles  the  Bold, 
the  Rash,  the  Warlike,  the  Terrible,  had  fallen ! 
his  body  pierced  by  many  wounds,  but  the 
death-blow  given  by  the  halberd  of  a  Swiss 
soldier.* 

1  An  ancient  chronicle  records,  — 

"  £ei  Grandson  das  Gut, 
£ei  Minten  (Morat)  den  Mut, 
Bei  Nancy  das  Blut." 


CHAPTER  X 

LEAGUE   OP  THIRTEEN   DISTRICTS 
1478-1499 

In  the  exhilaration  of  their  triumph  over  Bur- 
gundy, no  foe  seemed  formidable  to  the  Swiss 
soldiers,  and  a  desire  to  exhibit  their  military 
prowess  often  led  to  the  provocation  of  hostili- 
ties with  neighboring  powers.  An  instance  of 
this  was  exhibited  in  1478,  when,  in  retaliation 
for  the  act  of  some  Milanese  who  had  cut  tim- 
ber without  permission,  in  a  forest  belonging 

to  Uri,  the  young  men  of  that  canton 
Incursions  ■^         ° 

into  Italian  plundered  several  Italian  villages. 
^^'  Despite  remonstrances  from  mem- 
bers of  the  league,  the  government  of  Uri  then 
declared  war.  Immediately  the  Duke  of  Milan 
sent  an  army  into  the  field,  and  the  confeder- 
ates, unwilling  to  desert  one  of  their  number, 
were  compelled  to  send  troops  to  the  Ticino. 

It  was  midwinter,  and  the  advance-guard  of 
Swiss  —  in  number  about  six  hundred  —  flooded 
the  meadows  in  front  of  their  encampment,  at 


League  of  Thirteen  Districts       113 

the  village  of  Giornico,  and  over  the  quickly- 
frozen  water  advanced  on  skates  to  Batueof 
meet  the  enemy.  With  uncertain  Giornico. 
steps  the  Milanese  moved  forward,  but  their 
swaying  ranks  of  fifteen  thousand  men,  unable 
to  obtain  secure  footing  in  any  spot,  were 
quickly  overcome,  and  their  blood  dyed  red  the 
snow,  as  they  sought  escape  from  the  swiftly- 
gliding  Swiss.  The  "  glorious  day  of  Giornico  " 
(Dec.  28,  1478)  secured  for  the  confederates  a 
large  indemnity  from  Milan,  and  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Levantina,  and  the  Brugiasco,  upon 
condition  of  the  annual  gift  of  a  wax-candle  to 
the  Duomo  of  Milan. 

Other  results  of  the  Burgundian  wars,  and  of 
the  sudden  and  unequal  distribution  of  wealth 
that  followed,  were  widely  demoralizing.  A 
love  of  an  exciting  and  lawless  life  had  been 
engendered,  and  soldiers,  statesmen,  and  pre- 
lates began  to  frequent  the  springs  of  Baden, 
where  music  and  games  beguiled  the  hours, 
but  where  the  Spartan  traits  of  the  early  con- 
federates were  forgotten. 

Around  the  Swiss   league  gathered  a  class 
of  allies  known  as  zugewandte  Orte,  or  asso- 
ciate   districts.      They    were    con-  "Aaaodate 
nected  with  the  cantons  by  a  subor-  watricts." 
dinate  alliance,  and  were  under  obligations  to 
8 


114  Annals  of  Switzerland 

obey  the  Swiss  diet  in  matters  relating  to  war, 
or  to  foreign  treaties,  while  remaining  inde- 
pendent in  minor  affairs.  In  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, the  confederates  were  thus  in  alliance  with 
thirteen  towns  or  districts,  among  which  St. 
Gall,  Miilhausen,  Schaffhausen,  and  Appenzell 
were  prominent. 

As  opportunity  for  individual  cantonal  aggran- 
dizement occurred,  jealousies  and  distrust  were 
fostered.  Allies  were  aided  only  when  the  ser- 
vice seemed  reciprocally  profitable,  and  internal 
dissensions  began  to  eradicate  the  feeling  of 
mutual  dependence  that  had  been  the  glory  and 
strength  of  the  young  confederacy. 

Between  the  city  cantons,  Bern,  Zurich,  and 

Luzern,  and  the  country  cantons,  which  included 

Schwyz,  Glarus,   Uri,   Unterwalden, 

jealotules. 

and  Zug,  the  spirit  of  jealousy  was 
prominently  active,  and  in  148 1,  when  Bern 
proposed  the  admission  of  Freyburg  and  Solo- 
thurn  into  the  confederacy,  antagonism  was 
openly  manifested.     At  a  Diet  held  at  Stanz, 

the  opposition  to  the  proposition 
Diet  of  stanz. 

offered  by  Schwyz,  Uri,  and  Unter- 
walden was  so  strenuous  that  even  a  dissolution 
of  the  confederacy  seemed  imminent,  and  the 
delegates  from  the  cities  seeking  admission 
withdrew  their  applications.     Suddenly,  in  the 


League  of  Thirteen  Districts       115 

midst  of  the  angry  assembly,  appeared  a  tall 
and  slender  figure,  venerable,  but  still  vigorous. 
All  rose  to  their  feet  and  received,  reverently, 
the  unexpected  guest,  Nicholas-of-the-Flue,  the 
hermit  of  Oberwalden.  A  belief  in  the  wonder- 
ful sanctity  of  his  life  was  universal,  and  his 
words  came  with  almost  sacred  authority  as  he 
urged  the  confederates  to  acts  of  peace  and 
concord.  "You  have  become  strong,"  he  said, 
"  through  union ;  will  you  now  separate  for  the 
sake  of  wretched  booty.?  Cantons,  remember 
how  Freyburg  and  Solothurn  have  fought  by 
your  side;  and  freely  receive  them  into  your 
Bund.  Beware  of  internal  discord !  Far  be 
it  from  any  to  take  gold  as  the  price  of  the 
fatherland ! " 

An  hour  later  all  was  harmony.  Freyburg 
and  Solothurn  were  received,  and  a  covenant  was 
accepted,  in  which  the  constitution  covenant 
of  the  Swiss  confederation  was  first  "'stanz. 
definitely  settled  by  the  associated  members. 
The  covenant  of  1291,  the  Pfaffenbrief  oi  1370, 
and  the  Edict  of  Sempach  (1393)  were  all  rati- 
fied, and  amendments  suggested  by  Nicholas-of- 
the-Flue  were  incorporated  with  these  earlier 
ordinances.  Interference  by  any  canton  with 
the  internal  affairs  of  another  was  strictly  for- 
bidden,   but   should    insurrections    occur,    the 


ii6  Annals  of  Switzerland 

allies  of  the  disturbed  district  were  bound  to 
unite  against  the  insurgents. 

Until  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
this  Covenant  of  Stanz  formed  the  basis  of  con- 
stitutional law  throughout  the  confederacy. 

But  the  influence  of  the  hermit  of  Obwalden 
proved  insufficient  for  securing  an  enduring 
concord  amid  the  cupidity  of  magistrates  and 
the  arrogance  and  rivalry  of  burghers.  In 
various  localities  dissensions  occurred  which 
culminated  often  in  open  conflict,  and  occa- 
sionally in  murder. 

Hans  Waldmann,  the  burgomaster  of  Zurich, 
and  the  most  influential  statesman  of  the 
period,  inaugurated  many  salutary  reforms,  but 
governed  with  rigor,  and  punished  with  great 
severity  all  opposition  to  his  authority.  When 
charged  by  Theilig  of  Luzern  —  a  hero  of 
Giornico  —  with  having  exhibited  partiality  for 
Insurrection  Austria,  he  caused  the  accuser  to  be 
In  Zurich.  seized  and  put  to  death.  This  sum- 
mary act  aroused  indignation  among  citizens 
of  Zurich,  and  strong  parties  antagonistic  to 
Waldmann  were  quickly  constituted.  Affairs 
worked  rapidly  toward  an  open  rupture  within 
the  city,  and  the  confederates  vainly  endeavored 
to  mediate.  The  day  of  insurrection  arrived, 
and  Waldmann  was  seized  by  his  enemies  and 


League  of  Thirteen  Districts       117 

promptly  beheaded.  His  last  words  were,  "  God 
protect  thee,  O  Zurich,  my  beloved  city ! "  A 
new  government  was  inaugurated  under  the 
direction  of  Waldmann's  antagonists,  and  from 
the  unyielding  severity  of  its  rule  obtained 
the  name  of  the  "Council  of  Horn."  Several 
executions  took  place;  the  confederates  again 
attempted  to  intervene;  and  at  length,  before 
a  tribunal  of  allies,  the  city  officials  met  the 
burghers,  and  signed  an  agreement 
known  as  the  Convention  of  Wald-  ofwaid- 
mann  (1489).  This  contract  secured 
to  the  people  liberty  to  « settle  where  they 
pleased,  and  to  choose  their  own  handicraft. 
Peasants  were  given  the  right  to  cultivate  the 
land  and  to  manage  the  vine  according  to  their 
own  judgment ;  and  inhabitants  of  the  country 
were  to  be  entitled  to  share  equally  with  city 
residents  in  the  booty  secured  in  time  of  war. 

At  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Maxi- 
milian of  Austria  ascended  the  throne  of  Ger- 
many. The  last  hereditary  posses- 
sions of  his  family  in  Switzerland 
had  been  lost  during  the  reign  of  his  father, 
Sigismund;  and  Maximilian,  aware  of  the  im- 
portant advantage  to  be  secured  to  the  empire 
by  a  closer  union  with  the  cantons,  invited  the 
confederacy   to   become  one   of    the    imperial 


ii8  Annals  of  Switzerland 

circles,  recognizing  the  imperial  tribunal,  and 
sending  representatives  to  the  imperial  Diet. 
But  the  Swiss  realized  that  their  federal  union 
was  a  stronger  safeguard  than  the  protection 
thus  proffered,  and  declined  the  proposal,  as 
well  as  another  subsequently  submitted,  that 
they  should  enter  the  Swabian  league.  The 
discomfited  Emperor  designated  them  as  refrac- 
tory members  of  the  empire,  and  threatened 
to  pay  them  a  visit,  "sword  in  hand,"  but  the 
reply  of  the  Swiss  deputies  was  characteristic 
of  their  nation. 

"  We  humbly  beseech  your  imperial  majesty 
to  dispense  with  such  a  visit,  for  our  Swiss  are 
rude  men,  and  do  not  even  respect  crowns. " 

Opportunity  seemed  at  hand  for  the  execu- 
tion of  the  imperial  threat,  when,  in  1499,  the 
Tyrolese  undertook  predatory  excursions  into 
the  valley  of  Munster,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
Grisons  sought  aid  of  their  Swiss  allies,  while 
Swabian  their  adversaries  appealed  to  the 
^"'  towns  of  the  Swabian  league.     The 

confederate  response  was  a  valiant  one,  and 
never  was  war  carried  on  with  more  bravery. 
In  eight  months  six  important  victories  were 
won  for  Grisons,  while  bloody  reparation  for 
every  injury  to  the  confederacy  was  forced 
from  the  enemy.     At  Frastanz  three  thousand 


League  of  Thirteen  Districts      119 

Austrians  were  left  upon  the  field,  and  in  the 
Tyrol  fifteen  thousand  troops,  attacked  in  their 
intrenchments,  were  completely  routed  by  eight 
hundred  confederates.  Upon  receiving  intelli- 
gence of  these  disasters,  the  Emperor,  who  was 
in  the  Netherlands,  applied  for  aid  to  the 
princes  of  his  empire,  and  again  a  foreign 
army  was  marched  into  Grisons.  The  people 
sought  the  protection  of  their  mountains,  and 
within  a  few  days  the  intruding  force,  over- 
thrown by  rocks  hurled  upon  them  from  the 
heights,  or  buried  under  avalanches,  was  so 
diminished  in  strength,  that  near  Dornach  the 
survivors  were  easily  defeated.  So  ended  the 
Swabian  war.  In  a  peace  negotiated  at  Basle 
(1499)  the  confederates  obtained  im-  practical 
munity  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ^^^ 
imperial  Chamber,  and  from  taxes  Empire, 
imposed  by  the  empire.  Austria  made  no 
further  attempt  to  dissolve  their  league,  but 
recognized  them  as  practically  independent, 
although  not  until  1648  was  the  confederacy 
in  the  eye  of  public  law  a  sovereign  state. ^ 

Soon  after  the  conclusion  of   peace-negoti- 
ations  at  Basle,   that   city   was   re-  'S^*^- 

Admlafllon 

ceived    into    the   confederacy.     She  ofBasie. 
celebrated  her  admission  by  joyful  peals  from 

1  See  Bryce's  "  Holy  Roman  Empire." 


I20  Annals  of  Switzerland 

all  her  chiming  bells,  and,  displacing  the  guards 
at  her  gates,  seated  there  an  old  woman,  who, 
with  spinning-wheel  by  her  side,  remained  as 
an  emblem  of  the  peace  and  security  that  had 
descended  upon  the  city. 

Somewhat  later,  the  desire  of  Schaffhausen 
Admisaionof  to  join  the  league  was  gratified, 
schaffhatisen  ^nd  in  1513  Appcnzcll  was  admitted. 
Appenzeu.  The  confederacy  then  embraced  thir- 
teen members,  —  a  number  unchanged  until 
1798.  In  each  of  these  cantons  the  German 
^  t^  language  was  spoken,  with  the  excep- 

tionofTMr-  tion  of  portions  of  the  city  and  can- 
teen states.  -  T-      1 

ton  of  Freyburg. 

In  the  original  scheme  of  the  confederation, 
all  citizens  possessed  equal  influence  in  legis- 
lation, and  knight  and  burgher  might  mingle 
their  voices  in  the  discussions  of  the  Landes- 
gemeinde,  but  with  the  increase  of  population 
an  assemblage  of  entire  communities  became 
impracticable,  and  delegates  were  elected  by 
each  canton  to  attend  a  Diet,  or  Tagesatzung, 
first  assembled  at  Zurich.  Previous  to  the  six- 
teenth century,  every  canton  enjoyed  the  privi- 
lege of  summoning  a  meeting  of  the  Diet,  but 

that  authority  was  subsequently  vested 
Vororte.  .       ,        ,^        ^  ,.  . 

in  the  Vorort,  or  directmg  canton,  — 

an  honor  shared  in  rotation  by  Zurich,   Bern, 


League  of  Thirteen  Districts       121 

and  Luzern,  except  during  some  years  suc- 
ceeding the  Reformation,  when  Catholic  and 
Protestant  cantons  held  separate  Diets,  —  the 
former  assembling  at  Luzern,  the  latter  at 
Aargau.  Deputies  engaged  by  turn  in  the  dis- 
cussions, according  to  the  rank  of  the  canton 
they  represented. 

As  the  cantons  advanced  in  individual 
strength,  the  sovereignty  of  the  Diet  was 
limited  by  the  authority  of  cantonal  govern- 
ments, whose  deputies  could  act  only  in  accord- 
ance with  instructions  received  from  their 
states. 

In  time  of  war  the  influence  exerted  by  troops 
was  almost  equal  to  that  of  a  Roman  army  in 
the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  The 
commands  of  civil  magistrates  were  often  re- 
ceived with  the  words,  "A  contrary  decision 
has  been  formed  by  the  vote  of  the  army. " 

Torture  was  a  common  punishment  for  crime 
in  the  early  years  of  the  confederacy,  and  was 
considered  perfectly  justifiable  when  inflicted 
upon  any  one  condemned  to  death.  This  sen- 
tence was  pronounced  upon  all  convicted  of 
murder,  blasphemy,  or  robbery,  and  at  a  Diet 
in  1480  it  was  decreed  as  the  punishment  for 
all  thefts,  the  value  of  which  would  pay  for  a 
rope. 


122  Annals  of  Switzerland 

The  intellectual  dimness  of  the  middle  ages 
had  not  disappeared  from  Switzerland  in  the 
inteuectuai  fifteenth  century;  any  one  who  could 
Progress.  read,  sing,  and  translate  a  little 
Latin,  was  considered  sufficiently  elevated 
above  his  associates  to  hold  the  office  of  pastor, 
and  if  his  acquirements  surpassed  this  limit, 
he  was  liable  to  be  regarded  as  a  magician. 
In  addition  to  the  belief  in  astrology  and 
necromancy,  common  to  the  age,  local  super- 
stitions were  numerous.  Glow-worms  were 
indicted  before  the  spiritual  court  of  the  Bishop 
of  Chur,  and  condemned  to  banishment  into 
regions  uninhabited  by  man.  One  bishop 
issued  an  edict  against  the  eels  in  Lake 
Geneva;  another  fulminated  a  similar  decree 
against  earth-worms,  grasshoppers,  and  field- 
mice.  If  these  anathemas  failed  to  accomplish 
their  purpose,  the  sins  of  the  people  were  the 
reasons  ascribed.  But  in  1460  the  University 
of  Basle  was  founded,  and  the  German  monks, 
who  had  taught  that  there  was  "  a  new  language 
called  Greek,  the  mother  of  all  heresies,  and 
another  called  Hebrew,  which  held  the  power 
of  converting  into  a  Jew  whosoever  should  study 
it,"  were  themselves  brought  to  taste  of  the 
fountains  of  culture,  opened  to  them  through 
the  repudiated  tongues. 


CHAPTER   XI 

MERCENARY   SERVICE   AND   THE    FRENCH 
ALLIANCE 

1474-1516 

After  Grandson  and  Morat  the  reputation  of 
Swiss  troops  was  established.  The  confed- 
eracy, no  longer  "that  miniature  republic,  an 
inspiration  from  the  glaciers  and  the  ava- 
lanches," had  developed  into  a  nation  with 
whom  war  was  an  instinct,  and  whose  annals 
had  never  been  stained  with  a  military  dis- 
grace. The  phrase,  "  God  fights  on  the  side  of 
the  Swiss ! "  had  become  proverbial,  and  kings 
vied  with  one  another  in  efforts  to  gain  the 
support  of  such  puissant  arms.  Rivalries  for 
this  object  reached  the  extent  of  governmental 
intrigues,  and  state-policy  frequently  deterio- 
rated into  the  art  of  driving  the  best  bargain  for 
the  service  of  troops.  To  secure  the  strongest 
forces,  bribes  were  offered  both  secretly  and 
openly,  and  freely  accepted,  until  the  mer- 
cenary motive  of  the  confederates  was  so  prom- 


124  Annals  of  Switzerland 

inent  that  "  No  money,  no  Swiss ! "  became  an 
axiom. 

The  hired  troops  were  usually  commanded 
by  their  own  officers,  and  paid  from  the  home 
French  exchequer,  while  the  latter  was  re- 

*^^^^<^'  imbursed  by  the  foreign  government ; 
but  private  influence  was  also  effectual,  and 
thousands,  tempted  from  the  cultivation  of 
their  fields  by  the  potency  of  proffered  gold, 
enlisted  at  so  small  a  gratuity  that  it  became 
a  common  saying,  "  The  flesh  of  the  confeder- 
ates is  cheaper  than  that  of  their  kine. " 

The  system  of  granting  pensions  for  the  priv- 
ilege of  enlisting  soldiers  within  the  boundaries 
of  the  confederacy  was  originated  by  Louis  XL 
in  1474,  and  was  first  recorded  in  an  appendage 
to  the  friendly  compact  for  military  service, 
which  had  been  consummated  twenty  years 
earlier.  Other  sovereigns  soon  followed  the 
example  of  the  French  king,  until,  in  1574, 
Heinrich  Bullinger  wrote,  "  It  is  just  one 
hundred  years  since  the  formation  of  that 
alliance,  which,  as  is  now  clear  to  all,  was  our 
undoing." 

In  1494  Swiss  troops  aided  Charles  VIII.  of 
France  in  his  attempt  to  secure  the  kingdom  of 
Naples  and  in  the  contest  for  Milan;  although 
the  Emperor  endeavored  to  detach  the  Swiss 


Mercenary  Service  125 

from  their  French  alliance,  troops  from  the 
cantons  were  hired  by  Louis  XII.  as  well  as  by 
Ludovico  Sforza,  and  confederate  fought  against 
confederate.  The  home  government  endeavored 
to  prevent  this,  but  the  avarice  of  the  soldiers 
was  dominating,  and  national  scruples  were 
overborne  by  golden  arguments. 

It  was  not  strange  in  the  universal  degen- 
eracy thus  induced,  that  the  Swiss  should  prove 
capable  of  treachery,  and  that  troops  hired  by 
the  Duke  of  Milan  should  desert  to  the  King 
of  France,  bribed  by  his  secret  emissaries. 
When  Sforza  sought  safety  among  the  Swiss, 
and,  disguised  as  a  common  soldier,  joined 
their  ranks,  he  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of 
his  enemies  by  a  native  of  Uri,  named  Rudolf 
Turmann.  By  command  of  the  Swiss  Diet, 
Turmann  suffered  death  for  his  perfidy;  but 
the  number  whose  conduct  had  been  almost 
equally  reprehensible  was  so  great  that  no 
adequate  punishment  could  be  inflicted. 

In  1 501  France  and  Austria  were  arrayed 
against  one  another,  and  Maximilian  offered 
mortgages  upon  his  estates  as  security  to  the 
Swiss  for  payment  of  military  service;  but 
France  tempted  them  with  ready  money,  and 
spared  no  efforts  to  win  them  from  their  alle- 
giance to  the   empire.      Maximilian  had  many 


126  Annals  of  Switzerland 

partisans  in  Switzerland,  and  antagonistic  feel- 
ing waxed  so  bitter  in  the  cantons  that  a  civil 
war  seemed  imminent.  To  avert  that  calamity 
the  Diet  passed  resolutions  in  opposition  to 
the  French  service ;  but  the  proffered  gold  ex- 
erted more  potent  sway,  and  a  strong  force  of 
confederates  crossed  the  Po,  to  assist  the 
"  knight "  Bayard  in  the  conquest  of  Genoa. 
When  that  purpose  had  been  accomplished, 
they  were  dismissed  by  Louis  XII.,  with  ample 
pay  and  abundance  of  flattery. 

The  Emperor  then  convoked  an  imperial  Diet 
at  Constance,  where  the  Swiss  delegates  guar- 
anteed to  provide  six  thousand  troops  for  an 
expedition  into  Italy.  The  cantons  supported 
the  action  of  their  deputies,  but  French  intrigue 
again  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs,  and  the 
disposition  to  support  Maximilian  waned. 
Fortunately  for  the  peace  of  the  country,  the 
Italian  expedition  was  abandoned. 

When  the  Emperor  entered  the  League  of 
Carabray,  which  united  France,  Spain,  Ger- 
Leagueoi  many,  and  the  Pope,  against  Venice, 
cambray.  ^^q  suspicion,  widely  circulated,  that 
the  union  was  an  overt  act  against  all  free 
communities,  did  not  deter  the  confederates 
from  accepting  offers  for  their  services,  and 
six  thousand  aided  the  French  army  to  gain 


Mercenary  Service  127 

the  victory  of  Agnadello.  Venice  escaped  de- 
struction only  through  disunion  among  her 
enemies. 

Pope  Julius  II.,  apprehending  danger  from 
the  increasing  power  of  France,  abandoned  the 
League  of  Cambray,  and,  in  an  attempt  to  dis- 
solve the  union  of  its  other  members,  sought 
aid  of  the  Swiss.  The  prelate  Matthew 
Schinner,  Bishop  of  Sion,  electrified  by  his 
eloquence,  while  he  scattered  papal  gold,  and 
promised  fabulous  rewards,  both  temporal  and 
spiritual.  The  Swiss,  finding  their  services  in 
request  on  all  sides,  demanded  such  exorbitant 
recompense  that  the  French  king  broke  off  all 
negotiations  with  them,  and  the  so-  xheHoiy 
called  "Holy  League"  united  the  '**«°«- 
confederacy  with  England,  Spain,  the  Emperor, 
the  Pope,  and  Venice,  against  France.  Ten 
thousand  Swiss,  who  encountered  the  young 
Gaston  de  Foix  at  the  head  of  a  French  army, 
were  hurled  back  upon  their  mountains,  but 
when  a  force  of  twenty  thousand  confederates 
marched  upon  Verona  the  defenders  of  that 
city  abandoned  it  to  its  fate.  When  the  Swiss 
approached  Pisa,  a  popular  insurrection  drove 
the  French  from  that  city,  and,  after  a  slight 
resistance,  the  troops  stationed  at  Pavia  fled 
across  the  mountains.     Milan  then  surrendered, 


128  Annals  of  Switzerland 

and  the  reinstated  Maximilian  Sforza  rewarded 
the  confederates  with  Bellinzona,  Locarno,  Lu- 
gano, and  other  districts  now  included  in  Italian 
Switzerland.  The  Pope,  after  conferring  upon 
the  Swiss  the  title  of  "  Defenders  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church, "  requested  that  an  embassy  from 
the  Diet  might  be  sent  to  Rome. 

Upon  the  death  of  Julius  II.  in  15 13, 
Louis  XII.  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Vene- 
tians, then  estranged  from  their  former  allies, 
and,  having  bribed  a  band  of  Swiss  to  desert  to 
their  army,  French  troops  again  invaded  Italy. 
Revolts  in  their  favor  opened  the  gates  of 
Genoa  and  Milan;  while  Maximilian  Sforza, 
with  the  Swiss  in  his  pay,  was  blockaded  at 
Novara.  At  that  place  the  confederates  re- 
mained faithful,  although  both  promises  and 
threats  were  profusely  showered  upon  them 
by  the  French;  and  just  as  the  garrison  was 
reduced  to  the  last  extremity,  a  relief  force 
arrived,  and  a  complete  victory  over  the  besieg- 
ing army  was  obtained.  In  compliance  with 
imperial  command,  the  confederates  then  en- 
tered France  as  far  as  Dijon,  but  were  bribed 
to  retreat  by  the  unfortunate  king,  who  had 
suffered  recent  defeat  in  "the  battle  of  the 
Spurs. " 

Upon  the  death  of  Louis  XII.,  his  successor, 


The  French  Alliance  129 

Francis  L,  desirous  of  recovering  Milan,  pro- 
posed terms  of  alliance  with  his  "dear  and 
honored  friends,  the  Swiss."  While,  through 
the  Duke  of  Savoy,  uncle  to  Francis,  negotia- 
tions were  in  progress,  the  French  occupied 
Genoa,  and  Sforza  was  forced  again  to  seek  aid 
from  those  troops  upon  whose  strength  he  had 
learned  to  rely.  A  force  was  despatched  to 
join  the  army  of  Milanese,  commanded  by 
Prosper  Colonna;  but  before  assistance  arrived 
that  experienced  general  had  been  surprised 
and  made  prisoner  by  the  French.  The  Swiss 
were  on  the  point  of  turning  home- 
ward,  when  a  chance  encounter  with 
the  enemy  at  Marignano  drew  them  into  a 
battle  that  lasted  two  days.  By  the  superior 
numbers  of  the  French  the  Swiss  were  at  length 
overborne ;  but  the  prolonged  and  furious  con- 
flict earned  the  name  of  "the  battle  Battle  of 
of  the  giants  " ;  and  Francis  of  France  ^^  Giants, 
exultingly  stamped  upon  his  medals,  "I  van- 
quished those  whom  Caesar  alone  had  vanquished 
before. " 

The  following  year,  terms  of  a  treaty  with 
France  excluded  the  Swiss  from  Italy;  but 
they  received  an  indemnity  of  seven  hundred 
thousand  crowns,  and  an  invitation  for  their 
nation  to  accept  the  position  of  godmother  to 
9 


130  Annals  of  Switzerland 

the  infant  son  of  Francis  I.  The  treaty  thus 
The "  Perpet-  consummated,  and  designated  the 
uai Peace."  "Perpetual  Peace,"  was  preserved 
inviolate  until  the  overthrow  of  the  French 
monarchy. 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE  "APOSTLE   OF   SWITZERLAND" 

1500-1522 

The  fall  of  Constantinople,  and  the  invention 
of  printing,  signalized  an  era  that  cast  into 
Switzerland  a  measure  of  intellectual  enlighten- 
ment ;  but  the  treasure  was  chiefly  garnered  by 
the  clergy  and  a  few  among  the  dwellers  in 
cities,  while  the  mass  of  the  people  continued 
to  exist  in  deepest  ignorance.  The  clergy  pre- 
ferred to  keep  them  thus,  for  while  popular 
religion  consisted  in  a  tacit  obedience  to  the 
commands  of  priests  and  a  superstitious  devo- 
tion to  relics  and  holy  symbols,  the  life  of  the 
prelate  was  an  easy  one,  and  his  increasing 
exactions  remained  unchallenged. 

But  the  notes  of  warning  sounded  by  Arnold 
of  Brescia,  Huss,  and  Jerome  of  Prague  had 
not  been  wholly  drowned  in  the  clash  of  eccle- 
siastical trumpets  they  aroused.  The  hour  was 
approaching  when  the  people  would  realize  the 
necessity  of  reform,  and  freedom  of  conscience 


132  Annals  of  Switzerland 

was  a  prerogative  not  long  to  be  ignored  in 
Switzerland. 

Among  the  religious  brotherhoods  whose 
influence  was  dominant,  the  Franciscan  order 
had  obtained  a  pre-eminence,  by  means  of 
alleged  imprints  of  the  five  wounds  of  Christ, 
which  were  exhibited  upon  the  body  of  their 
saint.  To  secure  as  veritable  an  indication  of 
the  sanctity  of  their  own  order  was  an  ambi- 
tion of  the  Dominican  monks,  and  to  this  end, 
as  the  theatre  of  their  operations  they  selected 
the  city  of  Bern.  There  they  worked  upon  a 
simple-minded  tailor,  named  Jetzer, 
until  they  had  effectually  persuaded 
him  that  he  was  divinely  called  to  enter  their 
ranks.  Supernatural  apparitions  were  prepared 
to  render  him  more  credulous,  and  at  length 
one  of  the  brotherhood,  disguised  as  the  Virgin, 
drove  a  nail  through  the  victim's  hand,  and, 
when  a  strong  sleeping-draught  had  rendered 
the  operations  possible,  produced  marks  upon 
his  body  which  he  was  taught  to  regard  as 
wrought  by  spiritual  agency.  He  was  then 
easily  induced  to  act  the  part  of  a  saint;  and 
the  simple  people  of  the  neighborhood  heard 
with  implicit  faith  the  story  of  his  ghostly 
visitants.  But  at  length,  during  a  midnight 
interview,  Jetzer  recognized  a  familiar  voice, 


The  "Apostle  of  Switzerland"     133 

and,  suspicion  being  thus  aroused,  he  soon  de- 
tected the  fraud  that  had  been  practised  upon 
him.  When  this  was  known,  plots  were  formed 
by  the  monks  for  putting  their  victim  to  death; 
but,  escaping  to  Bern,  Jetzer  there  entered  a 
series  of  charges  against  the  Dominican  brother- 
hood, and  the  Bernese  council  proceeded  to  try 
all  implicated  in  the  affair,  while  the  monks 
denied  every  accusation,  and  despatched  dele- 
gates to  mediate  for  them  at  Rome.  Jetzer, 
tested  by  new  tortures,  was  kept  in  confine- 
ment for  months,  although  several  Dominicans 
suffered  death  at  the  stake. 

The  scandal  occasioned  by  these  events  gave 
impulse  to  the  rising  spirit  of  incredulity 
concerning  the  traditions  of  the  Church,  and 
hastened  the  approach  of  the  Reformation, 
under  "the  Apostle  of  Switzerland,"  Ulrich 
Zwingli. 

Zwingli  —  peasant,  poet,  scholar,  patriot, 
reformer  —  had  been  called,  when  twenty-two 
years  of  age,  to  be  parish  priest  in  xjirich 
Glarus.  There  his  influence  was  zwingu. 
exerted  against  the  enlistment  of  the  Swiss  for 
foreign  service,  although,  at  the  summons  of 
the  Pope,  he  accompanied  the  troops  of  his  can- 
ton in  an  expedition  into  Italy,  In  15 10,  his 
poem,   "The   Labyrinth,"  represented  vividly 


134  Annals  of  Switzerland 

to  the  confederates,  under  the  figure  of  the 
Minotaur,  the  monster  of  vice,  irreligion,  and 
foreign  influence  that  threatened  to  devour 
them. 

His  sojourn  in  Italy  opened  Zwingli's  eyes 
to  much  that  was  unsound  in  the  Church,  and 
on  his  return  home  he  began  to  study  Greek, 
in  order,  as  he  said,  to  draw  truth  from  the 
fountain-head. 

One  day,  while  visiting  the  priest  of  Mollis, 
Zwingli  discovered  a  liturgy  two  hundred  years 
old,  in  which  he  read  these  words :  "  After  the 
child  is  baptized,  let  him  partake  of  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Eucharist,  and,  likewise,  of  the 
cup."  "So,  then,"  said  Zwingli,  "the  sacra- 
ment was  at  that  time  given  in  our  churches 
under  both  kinds." ^  From  that  day  his  course 
was  slow,  but  progressive.  In  1516,  called 
from  Glarus  to  Einsiedeln,  the  sacred  shrine 
dedicated  to  the  Virgin,  and,  according  to 
legend,  consecrated  by  angels  and  apostles, 
he  there  found  greater  leisure  for  study,  and 
devoted  himself  to  Greek  and  Hebrew.  The 
works  of  Origen,  Ambrose,  Jerome,  Augustine, 
and  Chrysostom  secured  his  attention,  not  as 
authorities,  but  as  counsellors,  and,  through 
much  patient  labor,  he  attained  a  certainty  of 
1  See  D'Aubigne's  "  History  of  the  Reformation." 


The  "Apostle  of  Switzerland"     135 

conviction  which  impelled  action  —  "attained 
it,"  writes  D'Aubign6,  "not  like  Luther,  by 
storms  that  impel  the  soul  to  run  hastily  to  a 
harbor  of  refuge,  but  by  the  peaceful  influence 
of  Scripture,  whose  power  gradually  expands 
the  heart."  When  Luther's  name  had  scarcely 
been  heard  in  Switzerland,  Zwingli  began  to 
preach  according  to  his  new  conviction  of  truth. 
The  doctrines  of  the  exclusive  agency  of  Christ 
in  salvation,  and  of  his  suflficiency  as  a  Saviour, 
were  boldly  promulgated,  and  the  astonished 
pilgrims  who  offered  candles  at  the  shrine  of 
the  Virgin,  turned  homeward,  marvelling  at 
the  new  teachings  they  had  heard. 

In  1 5 14  Erasmus  was  in  Basle,  and  Zwingli, 
already  familiar  with  the  writings  of  "the  sage 
of  Rotterdam,"  was  anxious  to  meet  their 
author.  Accordingly,  a  journey  to  Basle  was 
undertaken,  where  the  preacher  was  greeted, 
not  by  Erasmus  alone,  but  by  his  friends, 
—  Oswald  Myconius,  Berthold  Haller,  and 
CEcolampadius. 

Contact  with  these  scholarly  minds  gave 
Zwingli  a  new  impulse.  Oswald  Myconius 
became  his  devoted  friend,  and,  in   _ 

'  Zwiagil 

association  with  other  adversaries  of  odiedto 

French  influence,  procured  Zwingli's 

call  to   Zurich.     This  appointment  drew  the 


136  Annals  of  Switzerland 

reformer  into  a  position  of  prominence,  where 
he  continued  his  practice  of  expounding  the 
Scriptures  to  the  people.  On  the  first  day  of 
the  year  15 19  he  preached  in  the  cathedral  of 
Zurich,  and,  after  reading  from  the  gospel 
of  Matthew,  gave  so  vivid  and  impressive  an 
interpretation  of  the  text  that  his  wondering 
hearers  exclaimed,  "  We  never  heard  words  like 
these  before ! " 

At  this  period  Leo  X.  was  in  the  papal  chair : 
a  man  of  whom  it  has  been  said  that  "  he  would 
have  been  a  perfect  pope  if  he  had  combined 
with  his  learning,  taste,  and  liberality,  some 
knowledge  of  affairs  of  religion,  and  a  greater 
inclination  to  piety."     To  the  monk 

Bernard  ^       •' 

Sampson  In  Bernard  Sampson,  Leo  had  granted 
authority  for  the  sale  of  indulgences 
in  Switzerland ;  but  when,  having  crossed  the 
heights  of  St.  Gothard,  the  Italian  friar  entered 
the  land,  he  encountered  bold  and  effective 
antagonism.  Attempting  to  open  a  market  for 
his  merchandise  in  the  town  of  Bremgarten, 
Sampson  speedily  found  himself  opposed  by 
Dean  Bullinger,  and  his  traffic  prohibited 
by  local  ecclesiastical  authority.  Journeying 
toward  Zurich,  he  was  met  by  deputies  who 
proffered  the  customary  cup  of  wine  to  the 
Pope's  envoy,  but  informed  him  that  he  might 


The  "Apostle  of  Switzerland  "     137 

be  excused  from  entering  their  city.  Upon 
receiving  his  declaration  that  he  was  intrusted 
with  special  messages  from  the  Pope,  the  coun- 
cil granted  him  an  audience,  but  speedily  dis- 
missed him  after  forcing  him  to  remove  the 
sentence  of  excommunication  fulminated  against 
Bui  linger. 

Leo  X.,  whose  thunderbolts  of  wrath  were 
soon  to  be  hurled  against  Luther,  touched 
Zwingli  with  a  less  despotic  hand,  finding  the 
Swiss  nation  too  useful  to  the  papal  see  to  be 
lightly  alienated,  and  Sampson  was  ere  long 
recalled  to  Italy.  Meanwhile,  in  other  por- 
tions of  Switzerland,  the  spirit  of  reform  had 
been  awakened,  and  new  doctrines  disseminated, 
despite  the  persecution  that  threatened  its 
preachers.  In  Luzern,  Oswald  barely  escaped 
death  at  the  stake;  and  in  Bern,  Haller  strug- 
gled to  proclaim  the  Gospel  in  the  face  of  many 
obstacles.  In  Zurich  nearly  two  hundred  per- 
sons confessed  the  faith  called  "Evangelical 
Reformed,"  and  that  city  soon  became  the 
centre  of  the  new  movement. 

In  1520,  Zwingli  was  so  severely  attacked  by 
the  plague  then  raging  in  northern  Switzerland, 
that  his  death  was  reported.  Soon  after  his 
recovery  the  magistrates  of  Zurich  forbade  the 
clergy  to  preach  any  doctrine  not  drawn  from 


138  Annals  of  Switzerland 

the  "sacred  fountains  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament."  The  greater  number  of  monks 
were  unfamiliar  with  the  Bible,  and  this  decree 
proved  the  spark  to  kindle  their  long-accumu- 
lated wrath  against  Zwingli,  who,  ere  long, 
found  his  life  seriously  threatened  by  their 
enmity. 

But  political  complications  again  diverted 
the  attention  of  the  nation.  In  1521  war  broke 
out  between  Francis  I.  of  France  and  the 
Emperor,  Charles  V.,  whose  seventy-five  titles 
provoked  many  jealousies  in  the  breast  of  his 
lifelong  rival.  France  claimed  the  support  of 
the  Swiss  cantons,  which,  with  the  exception 
of  Zurich,  were  all  her  allies;  while  the  Pope, 
who  had  vibrated  to  the  side  of  Charles,  made 
an  effort  to  secure  for  the  empire  the  support 
of  Zurich.  In  this  purpose  he  was  vigorously 
opposed  by  Zwingli;  but  the  warnings  of  the 
reformer  were  ineffectual,  and  two  thousand 
men  of  the  city  went  forth  to  cross  swords 
with  their  brother  confederates.  Meanwhile, 
Reugiotw  ^^  home,  enemies  were  increasing 
Controversy,  around  the  Zurich  pastor,  and  when, 
in  1522,  many  persons  neglected  to  fast  during 
Lent,  the  Bishop  of  Constance  issued  a  man- 
date against  reform,  and  sent  three  deputies 
to  investigate  the  condition  of  the  Church  in 


The  "Apostle  of  Switzerland "     139 

Zurich.  A  direct  blow  at  Zwingli  was  antici- 
pated; but,  in  an  assembly  of  the  clergy,  his 
learning  and  eloquence  so  effectually  silenced 
his  adversaries,  that  their  only  resource  was 
to  lay  their  complaints  before  the  magistrates 
of  the  city.  That  body,  friendly  to  Zwingli, 
recommended  an  appeal  to  the  Great  Council  of 
Two  Hundred,  and  this  assembly  was  accord- 
ingly convened.  The  papal  deputies  endeavored 
to  prevent  the  admission  of  Zwingli,  and  were 
at  first  successful ;  but  when  certain  members 
of  the  council  demanded  that  the  pastors  of  the 
city  should  be  privileged  to  reply  to 

their   accusers,    the    reformer,    with  Refomutioii 

,  .      .  .   ,  J     In  Zurich, 

his  two  associates,   was  summoned. 

Again  the  violent  attacks  of  the  deputies  were 

powerfully  refuted  by  Zwingli  in  a  calm  address ; 

and  when,  after  a  free  and  open  discussion,  the 

assembly  dispersed,  many  new  adherents  of  the 

Reformation  had  been  gained. 

Thus,    at    the   same    time  that    Luther,    at 

Wittenberg,  was  maintaining  the  doctrine  of 

justification  by  faith,  Ulrich  Zwingli, 

1522* 

in  Zurich,  was  contending  for  nearly 
the    same    standpoint,  —  "contending,"    says 
D'Aubign^,  "  if  less  eloquently,  yet  with  equal 
earnestness  and   honesty."     Many  ceremonies 
of  the  Roman  Church  were  abandoned  through- 


140 


Annals  of  Switzerland 


out  the  canton  of  Zurich,  while,  in  other  dis- 
tricts, changes  of  similar  import  were  effected. 
The  authorities  endeavored  to  prevent  extreme 
measures,  but  fanatical  zeal  often  destroyed 
images,  and  treated  even  the  cross  with  insult, 
while  differences  upon  minor  points  of  doctrine 
provoked  frequent  dissensions. 

At  this  peroid,  those  who  denied  the  efficacy 
of  infant  baptism,  and  insisted  upon  receiving 
the  right  as  adults,  obtained  the  name  of 
Wiedertdufer^  or  Anabaptists. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THE   RELIGIOUS   STRUGGLE 
1522-1531 

Influenced  by  papal  emissaries,  the  general 
Diet  that  met  in  1522  assumed  a  posture  antag- 
onistic to  the  Reformation,  and,  consequently, 
the  council  of  Zurich  issued  variable  edicts 
concerning  religious  affairs;  but,  after  pro- 
tracted deliberations,  forbade  any  doctrines  to 
be  preached  that  might  endanger  the  public 
peace. 

Zwingli  at  once  announced  that  he  could  not 
regard  the  prohibition,  having  determined  to 
preach  the  Gospel  freely  and  unconditionally ; 
then,  realizing  that  the  hour  for  contesting  this 
independent  position  was  at  hand,  he  convened, 
at  Einsiedeln,  a  meeting  of  pastors  who  had 
accepted  the  reformed  faith.  In  June,  1522, 
in  the  ancient  chapel  of  the  Virgin,  Zwingli 
proposed  that  petitions  should  be  sent  to  civil 
magistrates  and  to  bishops,  asking  for  liberty 
to  preach  the  Gospel  freely,  and  for  the  aboli- 
tion  of    compulsory   celibacy.     The   assembly 


142  Annals  of  Switzerland 

were  unanimous  in  the  acceptance  of  tenets 
embodied  in  the  petitions,  and  before  the  Diet 
again  convened,  copies  of  the  document  had 
been  widely  circulated.  But,  notwithstanding 
widespread  sympathy  with  the  principles  of 
the  reformer,  secretly  entertained,  few  persons 
ventured  openly  to  espouse  his  cause  before  the 
Diet,  and  in  that  assembly  the  demands  of  the 
Zwingu  Zurich  deputies  were  unsupported, 
in  Zurich.  jj^g  general  vote  was  largely  antago- 
nistic to  reform,  and  the  Zurich  petition  served 
only  as  a  hinge  upon  which  revolved  many 
future  acts  of  hostility  to  Zwingli  and  to  his 
cause.  Oswald  Myconius,  who  had  been  chiefly 
instrumental  in  circulating  copies  of  the  peti- 
tion in  Luzern,  was  forced  to  leave  that  city, 
and  in  various  adjacent  localities  adherents  of 
the  reformer  suffered  serious  persecution. 

In  January,  1523,  Zwingli,  resolving  to  meet 
boldly  the  crisis  that  seemed  imminent,  re- 
quested permission  to  defend  his  doctrines 
before  the  bishop,  and,  accordingly,  the  coun- 
cil of  Zurich  convoked  a  special  conference  in 
the  Great  Hall  of  the  city.  Before  this  assem- 
bly the  reformer  presented  sixty-seven  theses, 
in  which  the  papal  decrees  and  their  limita- 
tions were  assailed,  salvation  through  Christ 
alone  proclaimed,  and  compulsion  in  religious 


The  Religious  Struggle  143 

matters  denounced.  The  similarity  of  his  lan- 
guage at  the  close  of  his  address,  to  that  of  the 
great  Saxon  reformer  at  the  Diet  of  Worms,  is 
noticeable.  After  having  challenged  any  one 
present  to  confute  the  truths  he  had  stated, 
Zwingli  continued,  "I  have  proclaimed  that 
salvation  is  to  be  found  in  Christ  alone,  and  it 
is  for  this  that,  throughout  Switzerland,  I  am 
charged  with  being  a  heretic  and  a  rebellious 
man.     Here,  then,  I  stand,  in  God's  name."  * 

More  than  six  hundred  persons  were  gathered 
in  the  Great  Hall ;  but  at  the  close  of  Zwingli's 
address  a  silence  ensued  that  was  prolific  of 
influence,  for  it  was  evident  that  no  one  would 
dispute  the  ground  taken  by  so  able  and  elo- 
quent a  champion  of  reform.  The  council  then 
decreed  that  "  Master  Ulrich  Zwingli,  not  being 
reproved  by  any  one,  might  continue  to  preach 
the  Gospel. "  Some  magnates,  obstinate,  though 
embarrassed,  succeeded  in  appointing  a  second 
conference  for  the  following  October,  when,  in 
a  discussion  lasting  several  days,  the  authority 
of  the  Pope,  the  institution  of  the  mass,  and 
kindred  themes  were  freely  discussed;  and 
before  a  larger  audience,  Zwingli  established 
the  principle  that  fasts  are  optional,  not  oblig- 
atory, and  declared  the  church  of  Zurich  eman- 
1  "  Nun  wohlan,  in  dem  Namen  Gottes,  hier  bin  ich." 


144  Annals  of  Switzerland 

cipated  from  this  measure  of  bondage.  Soon 
after,  Zurich  was  detached  from  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Bishop  of  Constance,  and  acknowledged 
only  the  authority  of  civil  magistrates. 

The  Zurich  conference  formed  a  turning-point 
in  Zwingli's  career.  His  adversaries  realized 
that  more  vigorous  measures  were 
imperative;  and  while  the  Diet  of 
1524  drew  up  nineteen  articles,  which  forbade 
preaching  or  conversation,  in  public  or  in  pri- 
vate, upon  the  new  doctrines,  a  papal  brief  in- 
duced the  repudiation  by  Luzern,  Uri,  Schwyz, 
Unterwalden,  Freyburg,  and  Zug,  of  all  who 
endorsed  the  reformer's  tenets.  Many  cities 
became  centres  of  bitter  controversy ;  the  dis- 
position of  local  officials  toward  persons  sus- 
pected of  favoring  Zwingli  grew  increasingly 
hostile,  until  persecutions  of  the  reformer's 
adherents  often  culminated  in  the  death  of  the 
victim.  But  when  the  Pope  tipped  his  next 
weapon  with  craft,  and  through  his  legate 
offered  Zwingli  "  everything  short  of  the  papal 
chair,"  his  schemes  proved  as  powerless  to  bend 
the  solid  armor  of  steadfast  purpose  which 
enveloped  the  reformer,  as  if  aimed  against  the 
everlasting  hills  that  sentinelled  the  land. 

In  some  instances   the  enthusiasm   of   con- 
verts  ran  into  fanaticism.     The   Anabaptists, 


The  Religious  Struggle  145 

announcing  the  speedy  advent  of  the  Messiah, 
and  the  abolition  of  all  temporal  power,  marked 
their  way  by  deeds  of  horror  that  caused  a  sharp 
recoil  from  contact  with  the  sect.  One  man 
declared  himself  the  Messiah,  another  beheaded 
his  brother  as  a  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the 
world,  and  only  the  enforcement  of  rigid  and 
systematic  punishment  served  to  abate  these 
excesses. 

In  various  publications  of  this  period  Zwingli 
expounded  his  theological  system.  He  main- 
tained the  possibility,  through  Christ's  atone- 
ment, of  redemption  for  the  entire  zwin«U'« 
race,  and  claimed  that  the  Scripture  ^iieoioKy- 
passages  quoted  as  condemnatory  of  the  heathen 
are  applicable  only  to  those  who  wilfully  reject 
the  Gospel.  He  ascribed  to  the  sacraments  a 
less  important  function  than  was  imputed  to 
them  by  the  older  theology,  and  he  believed  in 
the  salvation  not  of  baptized  infants  only,  but 
of  those  also  of  heathen  birth.  He  asserted 
that  the  virtues  of  the  heathen  are  due  to 
Divine  grace,  and  enumerated  among  the  saints : 
Socrates,  the  Scipios,  the  Catos,  Seneca,  Pindar, 
and  other  heroes  of  antiquity. 

In  August,   1525,  the  pastors  of  Zurich  de- 
manded from  their  city  council  in  place  of  the 

celebration  of  the  mass,  the  re-establishment  of 
10 


> 


146  Annals  of  Switzerland 

the  Lord's  Supper.  A  decree,  in  accordance 
with  this  request,  was  unhesitatingly  issued, 
and  signalized  the  year;  but  with  the  modera- 
tion characteristic  of  Zwingli,  no  other  changes 
were  immediately  urged. 

Meanwhile,  various  local  governments  who 
were  in  sympathy  with  the  measures  of  the 
Baden  reformer  came  into  frequent  conflict 

Conference,      ^j^jj  t^g  j^j^t^  ^nd  in  1 526  a  general 

conference  was  called  at  Baden  for  the  con- 
sideration and  settlement  of  disputed  points. 
To  Baden,  a  city  closely  allied  by  many  inter- 
ests with  Rome,  the  council  of  Zurich  agreed 
that  Zwingli  could  not  with  safety  go.  Dr.  Eck, 
self-assertive  and  assured,  had  volunteered  as 
disputant  upon  the  papal  side,  and  CEcolam- 
padius  consented  to  appear  as  champion  of  the 
reformed  faith.  In  a  discussion,  continued 
through  eighteen  days,  the  subjects  of  the  real 
presence,  the  authority  of  the  Bible,  invocation 
of  saints,  adoration  of  images,  purgatory  and 
baptism  were  successively  examined.  By  the 
vote  taken  at  the  close  of  the  controversy, 
eighty-eight  delegates  adopted  the  theses  of 
Eck,  while  CEcolampadius  secured  only  ten 
adherents.  Against  Zwingli,  denounced  with 
every  opprobrious  epithet,  forty  charges  were 
read,  and,  with  all  who  accepted  his  doctrines, 


The  Religious  Struggle  147 

the  reformer  was  publicly  expelled  from  the 
Catholic  Church.  Upon  the  termination  of  the 
conference  the  clergy  of  Baden  celebrated  tri- 
umphal services;  but,  notwithstanding  their 
victory,  which  D'Aubign6  insists  was  "gained 
by  force  of  lungs  alone,"  an  ultimate  result  of 
the  discussion  was  acquisition  of  strength  by 
the  evangelical  party.  Many  pastors,  who  had 
hesitated  in  Baden  to  avow  their  convictions, 
upon  returning  to  their  homes  exerted  influence 
in  favor  of  reform.  Bern,  after  a  great  public 
disputation,  declared  for  the  new  faith  in  1528. 
Basle,  the  Swiss  Athens,  the  home  of  Erasmus 
and  the  gentle  CEcolampadius,  in  1529  estab- 
lished the  reformed  church  within  its  precincts, 
and  Schaffhausen,  St.  Gall,  the  Graubiinden, 
and  Solothurn  followed. 

As  the  time  for  renewal  of  cantonal  bonds 
of  confederation  approached,  the  Waldstatten 
declared  that  they  could  not  take  the  Treaty  of 
oath  with  Zurich,  and  urged  the  exclu-  '^•idahnt 
sion  of  her  delegates  from  the  Diet.  The  spirit 
of  antagonism,  thus  stimulated,  was  so  strongly 
manifested  between  adherents  of  differing  faiths, 
that  a  member  of  either  sect  feared  to  enter  a 
canton  where  the  adverse  belief  predominated. 
In  some  districts  the  peasantry  espoused  the 
reformed  doctrines,    in  anticipation  of  greater 


148  Annals  of  Switzerland 

liberty  when  tithes  were  not  claimed  by  mon- 
astery or  abbot ;  but  when  the  city  whose  pro- 
tection was  sought  exacted  an  equal  revenue, 
the  disappointed  people  often  abandoned  their 
new  faith,  and  resorted  to  arms  in  an  effort 
to  obtain  exemption  both  from  religious  and 
secular  authority. 

Through  the  exertions  of  Zwingli,  a  defensive 
union  was  formed  between  Zurich,  Bern,  Basle, 
Schaffhausen,  and  Constance,  while  alliance 
was  sought  with  that  earnest  espouser  of  the 
Protestant  cause,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse.  The 
Waldstatten,  with  Freyburg  and  Zug,  privately 
solicited  Ferdinand  of  Austria  to  interfere  on 
their  behalf,  and  in  1529  concluded,  at  Walds- 
hut,  a  treaty  for  that  purpose.  Immediately 
Zurich  and  her  allies  assumed  a  threatening 
attitude,  while  the  neutral  districts  of  Glarus, 
Solothurn,  Appenzell,  and  Grisons  sought  to 
dissolve  the  compact  of  Waldshut.  This  effort 
failing,  the  two  armies  of  confederates  met  at 
Kappel,  where  Zwingli  stood  among  his  ad- 
herents, armed  for  the  combat.  Again  the 
neutral  districts  undertook  the  work  of  inter- 
vention, and  through  the  exertions  of  their 
deputies  toleration  was  conceded  on  the  basis 
of  equality  of  rights  in  religious  observances, 
and  bloodshed  was  temporarily  prevented. 


The  Religious   Struggle  149 

But  the  fire  of  discord  was  only  dampened  by 
the  " Milch-Suppe,"  on  the  frontiers,  and  the 
flames  of  war  soon  burst  forth  with 

Armistice  of 

increased  violence.  Bern  attempted  thcMUch 
to  close  her  grain  markets  against  the  ""*' 
Waldstatten,  and  also  refused  to  sell  them  salt 
or  wine.  With  the  words,  "This  is  a  hard 
knot,  which  only  the  sword  can  undo,"  the 
forest  cantons  declared  war,  and  despatched 
eight  thousand  men  to  Kappel.  Fifteen  hun- 
dred Zurichers,  resolute  "to  await  the  enemy 
in  the  name  of  God,"  bravely  opposed  the 
superior  force.  The  first  gun  was  Batueof 
fired  by  the  Waldstatten,  and  to  its  ^»»«i- 
summons  the  Zurichers  responded  valiantly, 
but  the  overwhelming  advantage  in  numbers 
among  their  opponents  forced  even  the  bravest 
of  the  band  to  despair.  Zwingli,  in  the  fore- 
front of  battle,  was  stooping  to  console  a  dying 
man,  when  a  stone,  thrown  by  a  Waldstatter, 
struck  him  to  the  ground.  He  rose  to  his  feet 
only  to  receive  a  mortal  wound,  and  fell  back- 
ward, exclaiming,  "  What  evil  is  this .'  They  can 
kill  the  body  but  not  the  soul ! "  While  he  lay 
beneath  a  tree  that  now  identifies  the  spot,  a 
brutal  soldier,  recognizing  him  as  a  Zuricher 
by  the  dress,  inquired  if  he  would  confess  to  a 
priest   or   invoke  the  saints,  and  his  sign  of 


150  Annals  of  Switzerland 

refusal  was  the  signal  for  the  sword-blow  that 
closed  the  reformer's  life.  His  body,  recog- 
nized by  his  foes,  was  quartered  and  burned, 
and  his  ashes,  mingled  with  those  of  swine, 
were  scattered  toward  the  four  quarters  of  the 
earth.  His  heart  remained  unconsumed,  and 
typified  to  his  followers  the  martyr's  faithful 
love  to  his  country. 

Had  their  allies  acted  in  unison,  the  Zurichers 
might  perhaps  have  retrieved  their  cause;  but 
after  the  death  of  Zwingli  nothing  peace  of 
was  achieved.  A  peace  with  the  ^^"i^on- 
Waldstatten,  signed  at  Deinikon,  in  November, 
1 53 1,  established  Catholicism  in  Solothurn, 
reinstated  the  Abbot  of  St.  Gall,  and  checked 
the  progress  of  the  Reformation.  The  evan- 
gelical work  begun  by  Zwingli  was  continued 
in  Zurich  by  Henry  Bullinger,  who  united 
different  branches  of  the  reformed  church,  and, 
through  many  discouraging  years,  with  untiring 
energy,  supported  and  sustained  the  Protestant 
cause. 

The  differences  between  the  teachings  of 
Luther  and  Zwingli,  at  first  apparently  of 
minor  importance,  grew  pronounced  as  their 
doctrines  were  defined  with  greater  exactness. 
Luther,  through  the  strength  of  his  convictions 


The  Religious  Struggle  151 

upon  essential  truths,  had  been  forced  to  re- 
nounce the  authority  of  the  papacy,  but  the 
final  act  had  been  a  result  of  bitter  struggle, 
while  Zwingli  attained  gradually  to  the  con- 
summation of  his  views;  through  slight  mental 
resistance,  and  accepted  new  doctrines  as  the 
results  of  his  study  of  the  Bible,  Luther  was 
disposed  to  retain  in  the  Church  all  that  the 
Bible  did  not  expressly  prohibit;  Zwingli  was 
inclined  to  abolish  all  that  the  Bible  Lntherand 
did  not  enjoin.  Luther's  mind  was  Zwingu. 
single  to  the  propagation  of  truth ;  Zwingli  was 
earnest  in  works  of  patriotism,  and  eager  for 
civil,  as  well  as  for  religious  reform. 

Upon  the  subject  of  the  Eucharist,  the  diver- 
gence in  the  creeds  of  the  Reformers  excited  a 
wide  controversy.^ 

The  evangelist  of  Zurich,  teaching  that  the 
sacrament  is  purely  symbolical,  and  of  value 
according  to  the  faith  that  interprets  it,  main- 

1  Zwingli,  in  his  interpretation  of  the  meaning  of  the  bread 
and  wine  in  the  sacrament,  followed  Carlstadt.  Luther  wrote 
in  1524,  "The  Carlstadt  poison  is  spreading  fast."  Luther 
never  was  free  of  the  mistake  that  Zwingli  denied  the  presence 
of  Christ  in  the  Supper,  while  Zwingli  distinctly  says  that  he 
regards  the  Lord's  Supper  without  the  presence  of  Christ  as 
"an  enormity  before  which  every  Christian  must  shudder." 
But,  according  to  his  doctrine,  Christ  is  not  present  in  the  life- 
less bread,  but  in  the  believing  soul.  (From  Christoflfel's  "  Life 
of  Zwingli.") 


152  Annals  of  Switzerland 

tained  a  firm  opposition  to  the  tenets  of  the 
"Wittenberg  Doctor,"  by  whom  the  real  pres- 
ence of  the  Saviour  in  the  consecrated  bread 
was  strenuously  claimed.  Zwingli's  "  Com- 
mentary on  True  and  False  Religion "  opened 
a  controversy  that  engaged  the  adherents  of 
either  side,  and  revealed  the  position  of  many 
who  had  been  keeping  pace  with  the  leaders 
in  secret.  This  schism  threatened  disaster 
to  the  Protestant  cause,  and  the  Landgrave 
of  Hesse,  with  other  princes  favorable  to  the 
Reformation,  united  in  efforts  to  reconcile  the 
disputants.  A  conference  was  held  at  Marburg 
in  1529,  in  which  CEcolampadius  met  Luther, 
and  Melanchthon  was  opposed  to  Zwingli,  in 
private  disputation.  No  ultimate  ground  of 
agreement  having  been  attained  by  this  means, 
the  four  stanch  champions  of  Protestantism 
were  confronted  with  one  another  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Landgrave.  Three  days  were  occu- 
pied in  the  discussion  of  their  tenets,  but, 
although  fourteen  articles  of  Christian  faith 
were  accepted  and  signed  by  all,  they  failed 
to  find  a  common  basis  upon  which  they  could 
join  hands  at  the  Communion  table. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

GENEVA 
B.  C.  50 — A.  D.  1526 

The  largest  and  the  richest  city  of  Switzerland 
at  the  present  day  was  "the  farthest  town  of 
the  Allobroges,  and  the  nearest  to  the  frontier 
of  the  Helvetii,"  in  the  time  of  Caesar.  In- 
cluded in  the  Roman  conquests  of  the  first 
century,  a.  d.,  it  passed  from  the  grasp  of  the 
tottering  empire,  to  become  the  capital  of  the 
Burgundian  kingdom.  Then,  upon  the  stone 
gateway^   of    King    Gundobald's    castle,    was 

carved  the  monograph  that  testified 

^  A.D.433. 

to  a  "rex  clementissimus"  and  there 

was  wooed  the  King's  niece,  Clotilda,  who, 
wedding  the  Frank,  Clovis,  won  him,  after 
Ziilpich,  to  accept  baptismal  rites  for  himself 
and  for  his  nation. 

After  somewhat  more  than  a  century  of  Bur- 
gundian rule,  Geneva  fell  under  the  Early  gov- 

emmentof 

control  of  the  Franks,  and  was  en-  Geneva, 
dowed    by    Charlemagne   with    special    privi- 

^  This  gateway  was  demolished  about  1836. 


154  Annals  of  Switzerland 

leges  that  secured  the  citizens  against  the 
despotism  of  feudal  lords.  Christianity  is  said 
to  have  been  introduced  in  the  second  century 
by  fugitives  from  heathen  Rome,  but  there  is 
no  record  of  a  bishop  over  the  local  church 
earlier  than  the  year  381. 

In  the  ninth  century,  the  new  Burgundian 
kingdom,  evolved  from  ruins  of  Charlemagne's 
empire,  included  Geneva  within  its  precincts; 
but  privileges,  gradually  secured,  by  the  close 
of  the  tumultuous  partition  period,  served  to 
render  the  city  almost  independent.  Emulous 
of  annexing  it  to  their  neighboring  domain, 
the  Counts  of  Savoy  early  attempted  to  en- 
croach upon  the  liberties  of  Geneva,  but  the 
imperial  protection  was  secured,  and  in  1032 
the  city  was  recognized  as  an  appendage  of  the 
empire. 

Although  a  nominal  jurisdiction  resided  with 
the  Counts  of  Geneva,  whose  castles  stood  on 
the  Isle  of  the  Rhone,  the  government  was 
practically  managed  by  four  syndics,  freely 
elected  in  an  assembly  of  the  people.  The 
bishops,  residing  within  the  town,  succeeded 
in  acquiring  a  measure  of  temporal  authority, 
and  in  ii24Aymon,  Count  of  Geneva,  reserv- 
ing to  himself  the  supreme  control  of  outlying 
districts,  conferred,  with  a  few  restrictions,  his 


Geneva  155 

office  of  vidame,  or  vice-regent  over  the  city, 
upon  the  Bishop,  Humbert  of  Grammont. 

The  supremacy  of  the  Bishop  as  prelate  and 
prince  was  recognized  by  the  Emperor;  but  in 
the  thirteenth  century  Savoy  fomented  disturb- 
ances between  the  ecclesiastical  and  secular 
rulers,  and  finally  schemed  to  usurp  peterof 
the  remaining  rights  of  the  latter,  savoy. 
In  1250,  Peter  of  Savoy,  surnamed  "the  little 
Charlemagne,"  under  the  pretext  of  securing 
indemnity  for  a  debt,  seized  the  castle  of  the 
Count  of  Geneva,  and,  by  the  promise  of  new 
privileges,  tempted  the  citizens  to  place  them- 
selves under  his  protection.  Although  he 
failed  to  establish  a  permanent  authority,  a 
way  was  opened  for  further  aggressions  on  the 
part  of  his  successors. 

Duke  Amadeus  VIII.  of  Savoy  petitioned  the 

Pope,  "for  the  great  advantage  of  the  Church," 

to  confer  on  him  the  secular  authority  „  ^ 

-'    Schemes  of 

in  Geneva;  but  syndics,  councillors,  Amadeus 
and  deputies  combined  to  resist  even 
the  papal  will,  in  defence  of  their  threatened 
liberties,  and  Duke  Amadeus  was  obliged  to 
defer  the  execution  of  his  project ;  although  he 
finally  succeeded  in  effecting  it  through  a  laby- 
rinth of  mancBuvres,  and  with  the  connivance 
of  Rome. 


156  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Having  abdicated  the  throne  of  Savoy  to  his 
son,  he  assumed  the  hermit's  frock,  but  relin- 
quished   this    for   pontifical    robes, 
when,  under  the  name  of  Felix  V., 
he  was  raised  to  the  papacy  by  the  Council  of 
Basle.     Upon  the  death  of  the  Bishop  of  Geneva 
he  made  himself  administrator  of  that  diocese, 
which  he  governed  by  a  vicar,  until 
persuaded    by   the    Emperor,    Fred- 
erick III.,  to  resign  the  papal  chair.     Then, 
transferring  himself  to  the  see  of  Geneva,  he 
attained  the  object  of  his  ambition,  with  power 
to  transmit  its  prerogatives  to  his  heirs.     The 
dependents  of  these  intruders  encroached  upon 
the  rights  of  the  citizens,    and   thronged   the 
city,  until  it  was  asserted  that  more  Savoyards 
than  Genevans  heard  the  bells  of  St.  Peter's. 

The  right  to  appoint  Bishops  of  Geneva, 
formerly  monopolized  by  the  canons  of  the 
cathedral,  unless  the  Pope  chose  thus  to  assert 
his  authority,  was  thenceforth  claimed  by  the 
Dukes  of  Savoy;  and  upon  the  sudden  death, 
in  1 5 13,  of  Charles  de  Syssel,  a  partisan  of  the 
people  against  the  usurpations  of  the  reigning 
Duke,  the  suspicion  was  widely  circulated  that 
further  encroachments  upon  the  liberties  of 
the  city  were  contemplated.  Influenced  by  the 
conscientious,  resolute,  and  heroic  Berthelier, 


Geneva  157 

the  patriots  resolved  that  successive  bishops 
should  be  chosen  by  themselves ;  but  Charles  of 
Savoy  succeeded  in  securing  papal  co-operation 
in  the  execution  of  his  schemes,  and  Leo  X. 
rejected  the  candidate  freely  chosen  in  the 
city.  A  manifesto  was  then  issued  johnof 
by  the  Pope  in  favor  of  John,  "the  ^avoy. 
Bastard  of  Savoy,"  a  creature  wholly  devoted 
to  the  interests  of  the  Duke,  whose  installation 
into  the  bishopric  speedily  followed.  His  oath, 
in  presence  of  the  syndics,  to  preserve  inviolate 
their  ancient  liberties,  preceded  by  only  a  few 
hours  the  declaration  to  his  courtiers,  that  "  the 
next  step  would  be  to  Savoyardize  Geneva." 
The  period  of  his  tyrannical  rule  over  the  city 
was  red  with  the  tortures  of  the  rack,  and 
tumultuous  through  the  resistance  of  patriots. 

The  year  which  inaugurated  the  sway  of  the 
Bastard  of  Savoy  brought  also  to  Geneva  the 
young  Savoyard  nobleman,  Francis  Bonnivard. 
His   uncle,    John   Aim6   Bonnivard, 
the  prior  of  St.  Victor's  monastery,   and 
had  bequeathed  to  him  a  small  terri- 
tory just  without  the  city,  over  which,  as  prior 
of   St.   Victor's,   he  became   sovereign  prince. 
The  young   man,  who   had   been   educated  in 
Turin,  was   brilliant,    scholarly,    liberal.     Be- 
tween him  and  Berthelier  a  warm   friendship 


158  Annals  of  Switzerland 

was  soon  established,  and  their  hands  joined  in 
a  compact  to  rescue  Geneva  from  the  power  of 
Savoy,  —  a  purpose  to  which  Berthelier  had 
consecrated  his  life. 

Charles  of  Savoy  found  the  influence  of  his 
Bishop  counteracted  by  the  diplomacy  of  these 
patriots,  and  in  15 19,  resolving  upon  coercive 
measures  for  the  subjugation  of  the  city,  he 
approached  the  gates  with  a  large  army,  and 
demanded  free  entrance.  The  syndics  offered 
a  welcome  to  the  Duke  and  his  retinue,  but 
refused  admission  to  the  army.  Characterizing 
them  as  rebellious  subjects,  Charles  imperi- 
ously announced  his  determination  personally 
to  administer  justice  within  their  walls.  An 
appeal  to  arms  seemed  inevitable,  until  the 
adherents  of  Savoy  within  the  city  succeeded 
in  effecting  a  compromise.  Upon  receiving 
various  friendly  protestations  from  the  Duke, 
the  council  consented  to  his  entrance  with  a 
selected  guard;  but  as  soon  as  the  gates  were 
opened  the  entire  army  was  set   in 

Treachery  of 

the  Duke  motion,  and  the  authorities  of  Geneva 
avoy.  realized,  too  late,  the  danger  of  put- 
ting their  faith  in  the  princes  of  Savoy.  The 
Savoyard  army  was  stationed  within  the  city, 
the  cannon  removed  from  the  walls,  and  placed 
around  the   Duke's  quarters,  the  keys  of  the 


Geneva  i 59 

arsenal   were   demanded,    and    in   a  few  days 
Geneva  was  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  usurper. 

Previous  to  these  events,  an  alliance  with 
Freyburg  and  Bern  had  been  negotiated  for 
Geneva,  through  Berthelier's  diplomacy,  and 
in  this  extremity  Besan^on  Hugues,  Besancon 
a  zealous  patriot,  contrived  to  escape  fugues, 
from  the  city.  Fleeing  to  Freyburg,  he  de- 
picted before  the  council  of  that  place  the 
perfidy  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  Geneva's 
need,  until,  in  the  words  of  an  old  writer, 
"  Every  one  who  had  anything  like  a  heart  in 
his  breast  resolved  to  rescue  Geneva,  and  punish 
the  Duke."  A  large  force  was  immediately 
despatched  to  aid  the  imperilled  city;  the 
Duke,  alarmed,  agreed  to  retire  with  his 
troops  to  Savoy,  and  the  immediate  danger 
was  averted. 

At  this  period  the  appellation  of  Huguenots 
was  given  to  the  liberal  party  in  Geneva.  Pre- 
vious to  the  Reformation,  the  name 

Hagnenotv. 
had  a  purely  political   significance. 

From  the  cognomen,  Eidgetiossen,  or,  oath- 
companions,  by  which  the  members  of  the 
Swiss  league  were  known,  it  has  been  ingen- 
iously traced  through  the  variations  Eidguenots, 
Eignots,  and  Eyguenots.  It  seems  as  reason- 
able  to   conjecture  that   the  appellation   may 


i6o  Annals  of  Switzerland 

have  been  derived  from  the  name  of  Besan^on 
Hugues,  a  prominent  member  of  the  liberal 
league.  The  opposing  party  were  characterized 
as  Mamelukes,  and  compared  to  the  Egyptian 
soldiers,  who,  having  entered  the  service  of  the 
Sultan,  relinquished  their  liberty,  and  became 
Mohammedans. 

The  Duke's  entrance  into  Geneva  had  threat- 
ened serious  consequences  to  the  young  prior 
of  St.  Victor's,  and  he  was  induced  temporarily 
to  desert  his  monastery,  and  to  seek  a  refuge 

at  Echallons,  a  town  under  the  pro- 
Bonnlyard. 

tection  of  Bern.     Having  trusted  to 

the  guidance  of  two  perfidious  nobles,  Bonni- 

vard  found   himself   entrapped   by   them,   and 

forced   to   sign  a  renunciation   of  his  priory. 

He  was  then  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the 

Duke,  by  whose  orders  he  was  imprisoned  in 

the   castle   of    Grol6e,    on   the   banks   of    the 

Rhone,  while  one  of  his  betrayers  was  installed 

at  St.  Victor's,  and  the  other  rewarded  with 

a  portion   of    the  revenue    pertaining   to  the 

priory. 

Berthelier,  destined  to  reap  even  more  bitter 

fruit  of  patriotism,  though  warned  of  danger, 

refused    to    leave    the    city.     Soon   after  the 

Duke's  departure  he  was  arrested  by  order  of 

the  Bishop,  and  confined  in  Caesar's  tower  at 


Geneva  i6i 

the  Chdteau  de  I'lle.  Arrested  without  an 
accuser,  he  was  as  unrighteously  tried,  judged, 
and  condemned  to  death,  for  espousing  the 
cause  of  freedom. 

August  23,  1 5 19,  the  founder  of  the  league, 
"Who  touches  one  touches  all,"  was  executed. 
His  head  was  exhibited  as  that  of  a  Death  of 
traitor,  and  his  property  was  confis-  Berth«iier. 
cated.  After  his  death,  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  tri- 
umphant over  principles  and  liberties,  effected 
various  changes  in  the  constitution  of  Geneva. 
The  syndics,  "more  ready  to  lose  their  maces 
than  their  heads,"  resigned  their  offices,  and 
the  places  were  filled  by  adherents  of  the 
Duke.  A  heavy  gloom  overshadowed  the  city ; 
the  patriots,  benumbed,  held  only  rare  and 
secret  meetings;  servitude  and  ruin  seemed 
their  inevitable  doom.  During  three  days  a 
young  girl  went  through  the  streets,  refusing 
food  or  drink,  and  ever  crying,  in  a  monotonous 
and  dismal  voice,  "Wicked  Miller!  Wicked 
Mill!  Wicked  Meal!  All  is  lost!  All  is 
lost ! "  It  seemed  the  farewell  wail  of  the 
phantom  of  freedom  Geneva  had  cherished. 

But  in  1520  the  Duke  returned  to  Turin,  and 

the  Bishop,  having  been   seized  with  illness, 

left  the  city.     Then  the  liberal  party  aroused 

themselves,  and  demanded   the   restoration   of 

II 


1 62  Annals  of  Switzerland 

their  franchises  and  the  release  of  their  impris- 
oned compatriots.  The  vicar  in  authority  dared 
not  resist,  and  the  patriots,  gaining  courage, 
despatched  one  of  their  number  to  the  Pope, 
with  a  petition  that  the  city  should  be  relieved 
Banisiuneiit  from  the  surveillance  of  John  of 
Bastard  of  Savoy.  Their  request  was  granted; 
Savoy."  the  Bastard  was  forbidden  to  return  to 
Geneva,  but,  commanded  to  appoint  his  coad- 
jutor, chose  Pierre  de  la  Baume,  who  entered 
the  city  the  following  year.  Two  years  later 
John  of  Savoy  died,  suffering  great  agony  and 
discerning  upon  the  crucifix,  when  it  was  pre- 
sented for  his  comfort,  only  the  features  of  his 
victim,  Berthelier. 

Even  at  this  early  period,  Geneva  had  evinced 
a  tendency  toward  religious,  as  well  as  political 
enfranchisement, —  through  the  influence,  an  old 
writer  declares,  of  "  some  people  called  Evan- 
gelicals, who  had  come  from  France."  Duke 
Charles  of  Savoy,  still  more  exasperated  by  the 
discovery  of  these  predilections  on  the  part  of 
the  people,  threatened  to  make  the  city  "  smaller 
than  the  smallest  village  in  Savoy,"  but  find- 
ing threats  and  commands  equally  unavailing, 
he  resorted  to  artifice  to  establish  his  influence. 
Under  the  pretence  of  entertaining  a  special 
partiality  for  the  city,  he  expressed  a  desire  to 


Geneva  163 

present  there  his  bride,  Beatrice  of  Portugal, 
whose  sister  was  soon  to  wed  the  Emperor, 
Charles  V.  The  princely  pair  were  received 
with  honor,  but  the  Duke's  efforts  proved  fruit- 
less to  win  a  people  whom  he  had  so  frequently 
deceived.  Relinquishing  the  disguise  of  friend- 
ship, he  then  issued  orders  for  the  j^^^ 
arrest  of  Aim6  Levrier,  judge  of  the  '-«▼»**'• 
council  of  Geneva,  who  had  dared  to  maintain 
the  prerogatives  of  the  city  in  opposition  to 
the  demands  of  Savoy.  Levrier  was  secretly 
seized,  carried  to  the  castle  of  Bonne,  and, 
after  a  few  days'  imprisonment,  was  beheaded. 
This  deed  served  to  estrange  the  few  friends 
Charles  had  won  in  Geneva,  and  the  indigna- 
tion, universally  expressed,  caused  him  to  frame 
a  hasty  excuse  for  his  departure.  His  arbitrary 
efforts  to  subjugate  the  city  were  nevertheless 
continued,  until  against  such  tyranny  another 
appeal  to  the  Pope  was  determined  upon. 
For  this  purpose  deputies  were  despatched  to 
Rome;  but,  through  the  machinations  of  the 
Savoyards,  they  were  stopped  on  their  way,  and 
detained  until  the  influence  of  the  Mameluke 
party  in  Geneva  had  again  prevailed,  and  the 
city  council  withdrew  the  appeal.  Charles, 
called  "the  Good,"  in  the  annals  of  his  coun- 
try, then  proceeded  to  prepare  a  proscription 


164  Annals  of  Switzerland 

list,  which  included  the  names  of  all  who  had 
opposed  his  capricious  sway. 

After  the  death  of  Levrier,  the  most  influen- 
tial citizen  was  Besangon  Hugues,  "the  Nestor 
of  Geneva,"  a  young  man,  bold,  devoted,  and 
wise.  He  had  been  the  chief  obstacle  to  the 
progress  of  the  Savoyard  influence,  and  he  now 
seemed  threatened  with  the  fate  of  Berthelier 
and  Levrier. 

Upon  his  return  to  Savoy,  the  Duke  had 
secretly  mustered  another  army.  Silently  it 
advanced  toward  Geneva,  startling  the  patriots, 
who  had  barely  time  to  secure  the  flight  of 
their  leaders.  Attempting  to  reach  the  Swiss 
cantons,  many  were  turned  back  by  officers 
of  Savoy,  posted  to  prevent  their  escape. 
Hugues,  who  happened  to  be  at  his  farm,  a 
short  distance  out  of  the  city,  contrived  to 
elude  the  traitor  deputed  to  capture  him,  and 
reached  Freyburg  in  safety.  There  he  was 
received  with  honor,  and  in  a  fervid  address  in 
the  council-hall  he  enlisted  the  sympathy  of 
all  present.  Deputies  from  Freyburg  accom- 
panied the  fugitives  to  Bern  and  to  Solothurn, 
imploring  the  intervention  of  the  Swiss  league 
in  behalf  of  Geneva;  and  the  cantons,  thus 
appealed  to,  despatched  ambassadors  to  Savoy, 
declaring  their  determination   to  espouse  the 


Geneva  165 

cause   of    liberty,    and    to   oppose   the   unjust 
claims  of  the  Duke. 

Meanwhile  Charles  had  again  entered  Geneva, 
and,  availing  himself  of  the  opportunity  pre- 
sented by  the  absence  of  many  patriots,  he  con- 
vened a  council  composed  almost  wholly  of  the 
Savoyard  party.  Even  there  he  dared  not  ven- 
ture save  under  guard  of  a  company  of  archers, 
who,  carrying  their  weapons  high  in  Thecoimcu 
air,  gave  the  name  of  the  "Council  ofHaibercu. 
of  Halberds "  to  the  assembly.  Thus  sup- 
ported, the  Duke  proclaimed  his  intention  to 
spare  neither  money  nor  effort  for  the  benefit 
of  the  city,  and  promised  pardon  to  all  who 
had  opposed  him,  excepting  only  the  fugitives 
who  had  sought  Swiss  protection.  In  return, 
he  asked  recognition  as  sovereign  protector  of 
Geneva.  His  address  elicited  applause  from 
the  assembled  Mamelukes,  but  the  adverse,  and 
dominating  influence  of  the  city  council,  was 
revealed  the  day  following,  when  the  Duke's 
demand  for  the  supreme  jurisdiction  in  crim- 
inal affairs  was  received  by  the  syndics  with  a 
prompt  and  firm  refusal. 

Immediately  after  the  Council  of  Halberds, 
the  Mamelukes  despatched  messengers  to  an- 
nounce the  result  to  the  Swiss.  The  Huguenot 
fugitives  refused  to  credit  the  humiliating  state- 


1 66  Annals  of  Switzerland 

ments,  but  when  convinced  of  their  truth, 
Return  of  the  resolved  to  take  their  lives  in  their 
Huguenots,  hands,  and  return  to  Geneva.  With- 
out safe-conduct  or  other  protection,  they 
hastened  back,  to  rescue  their  city  from  the 
threatened  servitude,  or  to  die  in  the  attempt. 

But  already  the  Duke  had  departed  for  Turin, 
—  never  to  return.  In  Geneva  a  reaction  had 
occurred,  the  recall  of  the  fugitives  was  de- 
manded, and  on  a  fete-day  children  paraded  the 
streets,  shouting,  "  Long  live  the  Huguenots ! " 
The  Mamelukes,  surprised  and  enraged,  fluctu- 
ated in  action.  "They  will  go  mad,  please 
God,"  wrote  one  of  the  opposite  party  to 
Besangon  Hugues.  The  Bishop,  still  beyond 
the  mountains,  was  entreated  to  return,  but  on 
his  arrival  was  greeted  by  a  greater  number 
of  Huguenots  than  Mamelukes,  both  parties 
desiring  to  secure  his  co-operation.  A  fear 
that  his  own  authority  would  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  should  he  support  the  decisions  of 
the  Council  of  Halberds,  acted  as  the  strongest 
influence  upon  La  Baume's  decision,  and  al- 
though he  rejected  any  alliance  with  the  Swiss, 
he  declared,  before  the  syndics,  his  approval  of 
the  fugitives,  and  his  determination  to  preserve 
the  rights  of  Geneva.  As  the  time  approached 
for  the  election  of  syndics,  the  resolution  of 


Geneva  167 

the  majority  of  citizens  to  reject  Mameluke 
candidates  became  more  and  more  manifest. 
Quietly,  and  without  confusion,  the  election 
passed,  and  only  when  informed  that  four 
Huguenots  had  been  appointed  to  rule  the 
council  did  the  Bishop  realize  how  great  an 
advance  toward  the  freedom  of  the  city  had 
been  attained.  His  command  for  the  assem- 
bling of  another  general  council  was  obeyed, 
but  his  appeal  to  the  members  there  gathered 
failed  to  effect  any  change  in  their  resolute 
purpose.  Restrictions  that  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
had  enforced  were  annulled,  and  the  ancient 
constitution,  with  all  its  franchises,  was 
restored. 

The  Bishop,  seeking  thus  his  only  means  of 
safety,  despatched  envoys  to  recall  the  fugi- 
tives, and  made  extensive  prepara- 
tions  to  welcome  them.  A  salute  of 
guns  heralded  their  approach,  and  the  syndics 
set  forth  to  meet  them,  when,  accompanied  by 
deputies  from  Freyburg  and  Bern,  they  tri- 
umphantly entered  the  city.  The  Council  of 
Two  Hundred  convened,  and  received  for  rati- 
fication the  form  of  alliance  proposed  by  the 
Swiss.  With  promises  of  friendly  intercourse, 
the  two  cantons  declared  themselves  bound  to 
give  to  Geneva  "  favor,  aid,  and  succor,  should 


1 68  Annals  of  Switzerland 

any  molest  htr  syndics,  council,  or  freemen," 
Amancewith  ^^'^  ^^^o  at  the  city's  charge  to  march 
the  swiM.  Qy^  armies  in  its  defence.  The  coun- 
cil testified  its  approbation  of  these  terms,  and 
the  opposition  offered  by  the  Bishop  was  un- 
availing. Some  conspiracies  were  formed,  but 
they  were  detected  before  any  serious  conse- 
quences had  been  developed,  and  the  partisans 
of  Savoy  soon  quitted  the  city.  On  the  nth 
of  March,  eight  Swiss  ambassadors 

1526.  .  ,  °      .  ,  ,  r        ,,. 

arrived,  to  receive  the  oath  of  alli- 
ance and  to  take  it  on  behalf  of  their  two  can- 
tons. This  ceremony  having  been  observed, 
eight  citizens  of  Geneva  were  deputed  to  accom- 
pany the  Swiss  back  to  Freyburg  and  Bern  to 
take  the  oath  in  those  cities,  on  behalf  of 
Geneva.  The  Duke  made  fruitless  attempts 
to  break  the  alliance.  The  Bishop,  terror- 
stricken,  sought  to  win  favor  from  the  Hugue- 
nots, and,  conferring  valuable  gifts  upon 
Besangon  Hugues,  despatched  private  envoys 
to  Freyburg  and  Bern,  to  seek  for  him  admis- 
sion into  the  pivileges  of  their  citizenship. 
His  application  was  promptly  rejected;  but 
information  of  the  overtures  reached  the  Duke 
of  Savoy,  who,  to  punish  this  treachery,  com- 
manded the  seizure  of  the  Bishop.  In  a  des- 
perate attempt    to  save  himself,    La    Baume 


Geneva  169 

ordered  the  arrest  of  the  canons  of  Geneva, 
and  then  craved  from  the  council  permission  to 
register  his  name  as  a  freeman  of  the  city. 
His  protestations  in  favor  of  a  liberal  govern- 
ment gave  opportunity  for  a  request  presented 
by  the  syndics  for  the  transfer  to  them  of  all 
jurisdiction  over  civil  affairs,  and,  having 
yielded  this  authority,  the  abject  ecclesiastic 
received  from  the  city  a  promise  of  protection. 
A  demand  from  the  Duke  for  the  release  of  the 
imprisoned  canons  was  also  granted  by  La 
Baume,  and  twenty-four  of  the  number  sought 
safety  in  Savoy,  thus  freeing  Geneva  from 
the  most  strenuous  opposers  of  her  liberties. 
"God  himself  is  conducting  our  affairs,"  said 
Besangon  Hugues. 


CHAPTER   XV 

CONFLICTS  AND   CONTROVERSIES 
1527-^530 

Frequent  intercourse  between  Geneva  and  the 
cities  of  the  Swiss  league  facilitated  the  dis- 
semination of  Reformed  doctrines  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Leman.  As  early  as  1527,  Thomas  ab 
Hofen,  a  friend  and  disciple  of  Zwingli,  visited 
Geneva  upon  a  diplomatic  errand  from  Bern, 
and,  filled  with  the  missionary  spirit,  devoted 
himself,  at  the  completion  of  his  oflEicial  duties, 
to  the  work  of  promulgating  the  tenets  of  the 
Swiss  reformers.  Opposed  by  the  clergy  of 
the  city,  and  discouraged  by  the  indifference  of 
the  masses,  he  returned  to  Bern  without  wit- 
nessing the  blossoming  of  the  seed  he  had 
planted;  but  the  awakening  of  Geneva  to  the 
truth  of  the  new  doctrines  were  tidings  spread 
abroad  before  the  death  of  Zwingli. 

Gradually  opinions  subversive  of  papal  author- 
ity gained  influence.  The  sacking  of  Rome 
by  Constable  Bourbon  inflicted  a  severe  shock 


Conflicts  and  Controversies        171 

upon  the  faith  that  had  regarded  papal  prerog- 
atives as  divinely  guarded,  and  proportionately 
strengthened  the  factions  opposed  to  episcopal 
sway.  The  measures  adopted  by  his  opponents 
in  Geneva  so  alarmed  Pierre  La  Baume  that  he 
fled  from  the  city.  Freed  from  the  surveil- 
lance of  the  Bishop,  the  citizens  pro-  _.  ,  _ 
^  ^         The  "Golden 

ceeded  to  reconstruct  their  constitu-  BixU"of 
tion  upon  a  liberal  basis;  the  crest 
of  Savoy  disappeared  from  the  Chateau  de  I'lle, 
and  in  a  popular  assembly  the  terms  of  a 
"Golden  Bull"  —  rejecting  any  authority  save 
that  of  Bishop  and  Emperor  —  were  unanimously 
adopted.  Threatened  with  excommunication, 
the  council  decreed  that  no  mandate  emanating 
from  the  papal  dominion  should  be  received, 
and,  despite  the  opposition  of  priests  and 
Mamelukes,  and  the  timid  apprehensions  of 
the  superstitious,  a  burlesque  procession,  "  The 
Funeral  of  the  Papacy,"  paraded  the  city  streets. 
These  ultra  demonstrations  stimulated  the 
antagonism  of  Savoyard  nobles  who  resided  in 
the  vicinity  of  Geneva;  and,  having  assembled 
at  the  castle  of  Bursinal  to  discuss  The  spoon 
methods  of  intervention,  they  there  ^'*««"«' 
inaugurated  the  "Spoon  League,"  with  the 
boast  that  its  members  would  "sup  up  the 
Huguenots   like  spoon-meat."     The  fraternity 


lya  Annals  of  Switzerland 

rapidly  increased  in  numbers.  "  Men  took  the 
spoon,"  says  an  old  writer,  "as  Crusaders  took 
the  Cross,"  and  again  the  independence  of 
Geneva  was  seriously  threatened. 

The  flight  of  his  Bishop  had  so  enraged  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  that  in  revenge  he  seized  upon 
castles  belonging  to  La  Baume,  and  confiscated 
their  revenues;  but,  failing  to  advance  his  per- 
sonal projects  by  this  policy,  he  consented  to  a 
reconciliation  with  the  Bishop,  and  based  the 
new  covenant  upon  fresh  schemes  for  control- 
ling Geneva.  A  mandate  from  La  Baume, 
which  forbade  a  trial  by  the  magistrates  alone, 
in  any  civil  case,  was  posted  upon  the  doors  of 
churches ;  but  the  placards  were  soon  removed 
by  command  of  the  syndics,  whereupon  the 
Bishop  resorted  to  threats,  and  again  the  city 
was  in  wild  confusion.  The  episcopal  party, 
led  by  Hugues,  declared  their  willingness  to 
accept  the  administration  of  La  Baume,  but 
rejected  any  authority  emanating  from  Savoy, 
and,  in  defence  of  their  principles,  stood  ready 
to  hazard  their  possessions  and  their  lives. 

The  Sire  de  Pontverre,  chief  of  the  Spoon 
League,  commanded  his  knights  to  assemble 
"with  swords  and  spears,"  for  the  attack  upon 
Geneva;  but  before  the  consummation  of  his 
schemes,  in  arrogant  assurance  of  authority,  he 


0@O 


tauHti 


^^^fl'0 


V.^ttl." 


-iHi'laiuMVii 


THE    REFORMERS. 


Conflicts  and  Controversies         173 

attempted  to  ride  at  night  through  the  city, 
attended  by  a  small  escort.  His  insults  and 
taunts  called  forth  retaliatory  action  from  the 
populace,  and  he  was  chased  through  the  streets 
until  he  sought  shelter  in  a  house  by  the  city 
wall,  with  whose  occupants  he  was  in  secret 
league,  but  where  he  was  caught  by  the  mob 
and  slain.  Despite  this  disaster,  the  Spoon 
League  persevered  in  their  purpose  of  capturing 
the  city,  and  chose  a  new  leader  for  the  enter- 
prise. Everything  promised  a  successful  con- 
summation of  their  plans,  as  amid  the  gloom  of 
a  moonless  night  the  band  approached  Geneva, 
carrying  long  ladders  with  which  to  scale  the 
walls.  But  at  the  moment  when  success  seemed 
certain,  a  spirit  of  timidity  overpowered  the 
leaders,  and,  pretending  to  have  re-  The  Day  of 
ceived  messages  from  the  Duke  and  the  Ladders, 
the  Emperor,  forbidding  the  execution  of  their 
project,  they  retreated  as  rapidly  and  as  silently 
as  they  had  advanced.  "  The  gentlemen  had 
undertaken  to  attack  the  city,  which  God  has 
preserved  hitherto,"  Geneva's  chronicle  records 
in  its  note  of  "The  Day  of  the  Ladders." 

Throughout  this  period  of  tumultuous  polit- 
ical life,  the  Reformed  religious  doctrines  had 
been  steadily  propagated  in  Geneva,  through 
the  efforts  of  Swiss  evangelists,  and  the  Duke 


174  Annals  of  Switzerland 

of  Savoy  made  that  fact  his  pretext  for  seeking 
the  co-operation  of  Pope  and  Emperor,  in  his 
farther  efforts  to  humiliate  and  control  the 
city.  Insinuating  himself  into  the  confidence 
of  the  Swiss,  he  at  the  same  time  endeavored, 
by  gifts,  to  gain  their  good-will,  and  by  guile 
to  sever  their  alliance  with  Geneva.  The 
horizon  of  the  brave  city  was  dark  with  threat- 
ening clouds.  Bulls  of  excommunication  were 
fulminated  by  the  Pope  against  all  heretics, 
while  the  Emperor  gave  command  for  the  arrest 
of  any  who  should  preach  the  doctrine  of  Re- 
form. The  reply  of  the  Genevans  to  the 
letter  containing  this  decree  was  simple  and 
direct :  — 

"  Sire,  —  We  intend  to  live  as  in  past  times ;  ac- 
cording to  God,  and  the  law  of  Jesus  Christ." 

The  citizens  then  proceeded  to  secure  for 
themselves  a  preacher  of  the  Evangelical 
faith. 

Through  the  influence  of  La  Baume,  and  of 
the  city  council,  Bonnivard,  after  his  release 
from  imprisonment  at  Grol6e,  had  recovered  his 
priory,  although  its  revenues  remained  under 
the  control  of  his  enemies.  The  friends  of  the 
new  faith  suggested  a  transfer  of  St.  Victor's 
to  the   control   of  Bern,   in  order  that   under 


Conflicts  and  Controversies        175 

Swiss  protection  an  Evangelical  preacher  might 
be  there  established.  But  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
coveted  this  stronghold  so  near  to  Geneva,  and 
when  Bonnivard,  desirous  of  visiting  his  aged 
mother  at  his  ancestral  home  of  Syssel,  secured 
a  safe-conduct  from  the  Duke,  and  under  its 
protection  entered  Savoy,  his  enemies  insinu- 
ated that  he  had  gone  to  surrender  St.  Victor's. 
In  the  excitement  thus  engendered,  threatened 
by  the  Duke's  partisans  on  the  one  hand,  and 
by  the  patriots  of  Geneva  on  the  other,  Bonni- 
vard's  return  seemed  so  hazardous  that  in  ex- 
change for  a  pension  he  proposed  to  resign 
his  priory  to  the  Bishop  of  Montfaucon.  The 
Bishop  accepted  the  proposal,  provided  the 
acquiescence  of  Geneva  and  Savoy  could  be 
secured,  and  to  consummate  the  matter  it  be- 
came necessary  for  Bonnivard  to  journey  to 
Moudon. 

At  Moudon  he  was  met  by  the  Sire  de  Belle- 
garde,  the  murderer  of  the  "  father  of  the  French 
Revolution," — Jacques  Lef^bvre.  Under  the 
guise  of  an  admiring  friendship,  Bellegarde 
offered  every  attention  to  Bonnivard,  and  when 
the  prior  announced  his  intention  of  returning 
to  Lausanne,  he  insisted  upon  sending  a  servant 
to  attend  him  as  guide. 

The  proverbial  saying  of  the  Council  of  Con- 


176  Annals  of  Switzerland 

stance,  "  No  faith  ought  to  be  kept  with  here- 
capture  of  ^^^^> "  ^^^  repeated  among  those  who 
Bonnivard.  connived  at  the  deed  that  followed. 
Near  Lausanne  a  party  of  horsemen  appeared 
suddenly  in  the  road,  who  demanded  Bonni- 
vard's  surrender,  and,  despite  the  guarantee  of 
safety  borne  by  the  prior,  he  was  made  pris- 
oner, and  immured  in  the  castle  of 
Chillon.  There  he  was  at  first  com- 
fortably lodged  and  respectfully  treated;  but 
soon,  by  a  special  order  from  the  Duke,  he  was 
removed  to  the  dungeons  of  the  castle,  while 
the  agents  of  Savoy  in  Geneva  pretended  igno- 
rance of  the  place  of  his  concealment. 

Alas  for  Geneva!  Berthelier  was  dead,  Bon- 
nivard in  prison,  the  Emperor  and  the  Pope 
alienated;  while  Charles  of  Savoy  and  Pierre 
La  Baume,  having  become  reconciled  to  one 
another,  were  concocting  new  schemes  for  her 
subjugation,  and  the  Spoon  League,  swearing 
that  the  city  should  fall,  stood  ready  to  take 
the  field  at  the  summons  of  the  Duke.  An 
attack  by  the  combined  forces  of  the  Duke,  the 
Bishop,  and  the  Spoon  League,  was  projected, 
under  the  pretence  of  an  enterprise  in  behalf 
of  the  "holy  faith,"  while,  as  yet,  in  Geneva, 
there  was  not  a  church  where  mass  was  not 
celebrated.     The  united  troops  surrounded  the 


Conflicts  and  Controversies         177 

city,  but  this  time  rescue  appeared  in  the  form 
of  an  imperial  mandate,  which  deferred  all 
action  until  spring;  and,  although  he  believed 
himself  to  be  on  the  verge  of  consummating 
his  long-cherished  projects,  Charles  of  Savoy 
dared  not  disobey  the  Emperor.  Even  while 
with  failing  hearts  the  citizens  looked  from 
their  watch-towers,  the  army  of  the  enemy  was 
withdrawn  from  before  their  walls. 

So,  through  repeated  alarms,  perils,  and 
rescues,  Geneva  passed,  braving  assault  with 
heroic  courage,  resolute  in  the  face  of  intim- 
idation, strong  amid  calamities,  grateful  for 
deliverances. 

Intelligence  of  the  operations  of  the  Spoon 
League  brought  an  army  from  Freyburg  and 
Bern  to  the  aid  of  their  allies,  and  fifteen 
thousand  Swiss,  entering  the  Pays  de  Vaud  on 
their  way  to  Geneva,  destroyed  many  castles, 
and  desolated  much  property  belonging  to  the 
knights  of  the  Spoon.  Upon  their  arrival  in 
Geneva  the  large  army  was  quartered  in  monas- 
teries, where  the  affrighted  monks  were  forced 
to  provide  accommodation.  The  Bernese,  desir- 
ous of  celebrating  divine  service  according  to 
the  Evangelical  forms,  opened  the  doors  of  the 
cathedral,  read  the  Scriptures  from  its  pulpit, 
and  preached  there  the  truths  of  their  faith, 
12 


lyS  Annals  of  Switzerland 

inaugurating  thus  a  service  thenceforth  unin- 
terrupted in  the  city. 

At  the  end  of  the  year,  through  the  media- 
tion of  the  allies,  the  truce  of  St.  Julien  was 
Tmce  of  Concluded  between  Geneva  and  Savoy, 
St.  jouen.  with  reciprocal  assurances  of  amity 
and  good  faith.  Should  Geneva  prove  recreant 
to  her  promises,  the  Swiss  stood  pledged  to 
take  up  arms  against  her;  while  in  case  of  a 
violation  of  the  treaty  on  the  part  of  Savoy,  the 
Pays  de  Vaud  would  be  forfeited  to  Freyburg 
and  Bern. 

But  the  Bishop  was  not  reinstated,  and  the 
Duke  of  Savoy  had  failed  in  his  attempt  to 
sever  the  union  between  Geneva  and  the  Swiss. 
After  the  battle  of  Kappel,  believing  that  he 
could  easily  extirpate  heresy,  Charles  renewed 
his  aggressions,  and  Savoyard  troops  again 
threatened  the  city,  cutting  off  all  its  means 
of  supply.  The  agents  of  the  Duke  had  been 
active  in  Freyburg  and  Bern,  and  representa- 
tives of  the  aristocratic  classes  in  those  cities 
were  sent  to  Geneva  to  demand  the  renuncia- 
tion of  the  Swiss  alliance,  and  the  submission 
of  the  Genevans  to  the  authority  of  Savoy. 
The  citizens  indignantly  refused  compliance 
with  this  dictate,  and  appealed  to  the  Grand 
Council   at   Bern,    where  their  deputies   pro- 


Conflicts  and  Controversies        179 

claimed  their  firm  resolution  to  endure  any- 
thing rather  than  separate  from  the  Swiss.  It 
was  the  aristocratic  party  alone  in  Bern  that 
had  been  won  to  the  interests  of  Savoy;  the 
Grand  Council  in  full  assembly  voted 

1530. 

to  maintain  the  alliance.     Freyburg 

adopted  the  resolutions  of  Bern,  and  Geneva 

was  once  more  in  safety. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THE  VICTORY   WON 

1532-1536 

From  Orbe,  Grandson,  and  neighboring  places 
where  they  were  laboring  to  disseminate  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformed  faith,  William  Farel, 
a  refugee  from  France,  and  Viret,  an  evangelist 
from  Vaud,  watched  with  keenest  interest  the 
progress  of  affairs  in  Geneva.  Farel,  a  man 
whom  difficulties  never  deterred,  reverses  never 
discouraged,  bold,  energetic,  direct  in  effort, 
entered  Geneva  in  1532,  in  company  with  his 
countryman  Saunier.  They  were  welcomed  by 
a  cousin  of  Calvin,  Peter  Robert  Olivetan,  who 
in  1530  had  established  himself  as  a  tutor  in 
Geneva.  From  his  pen  was  to  come  the  first 
French  translation  of  the  Bible,  a  work  which 
a  contemporary  Waldensian  synod  had  resolved 
to  see  accomplished. 

The  Huguenots  assembled  at  once,  eager  to 
hear  these  "Evangelicals";  but  their  frequent 
gatherings    alarmed    the    Catholics,    and    the 


The  Victory  Won  i8i 

magistrates  summoned  the  preachers  before 
the  council.  Farel  produced  credentials  from 
Bern  that  in  an  assembly  divided  in  religious 
opinions  procured  his  release,  but  the  priestly 
party  plotted  his  ruin,  and  summoned  him  be- 
fore the  episcopal  body,  ostensibly  for  discus- 
sion of  doctrine.  Incited  by  those  who  had 
sworn  that  the  evangelist  should  not  escape 
alive,  the  assembly  worked  itself  into  a  frenzy 
of  antagonism,  and  heaped  upon  their  prisoner 
insult  and  abuse,  while  refusing  him  any  oppor- 
tunity for  defence.  With  the  cry,  "To  the 
Rhone!  To  the  Rhone!  Kill  him,  kill  him!" 
they  struck  and  spat  upon  their  helpless  vic- 
tim, until  some  of  the  syndics,  realizing,  like 
the  official  of  Ephesus,  that  they  were  likely 
to  be  accused  for  that  day's  riot,  opened  a  way 
of  escape  into  the  street.  There  the  menaces 
of  the  mob  were  encountered,  but  under  the 
protection  of  armed  troops  the  evangelist 
escaped  from  the  city. 

The  year  1533  opened  tumultuously  in 
Geneva.  On  the  first  day  of  January,  Froment, 
a  schoolmaster  of  the  Reformed  faith  Evangeusta 
preached  in  the  streets,  by  demand  *»  Geneva, 
of  the  Huguenots.  The  day  following,  a  prop- 
osition to  forbid  all  preaching,  either  in  pub- 
lic places,  or  in  private  houses,   was  brought 


1 82  Annals  of  Switzerland 

before  the  council.     This  suggestion  met  strong 

opposition,     but     nothing    decisive    followed. 

From  Bern  came  complaints  of  the  persecution 

of  Farel  and  his  allies,  together  with  a  demand 

for  liberty  of  worship  to  the  Huguenots.     The 

Mameluke  party  resented  this  intervention,  and 

united  in  a  conspiracy  for  putting  to  death  all 

who  professed  the  Reformed  religion.     Cries 

of    "  Down    with   the    Lutherans ! "    resounded 

through  the  streets.     Even  women  bore  arms, 

and  placed  hatchets  and  stones  in  the  hands  of 

their  children,   until  for  self-protec- 
Coofllcts.  .  -  ,      .  . 

tion  the  most  peaceful  citizens  were 

forced  to  carry  weapons.  The  Catholics  plotted 
a  combined  attack  upon  the  Huguenots  on  the 
28th  of  March.  The  Huguenots  desired  to 
avoid  the  shedding  of  blood,  but  upon  learning 
that  the  destruction  of  their  homes  was  threat- 
ened, they  sallied  forth,  prepared  for  resistance. 
A  bitter  conflict  seemed  inevitable,  until  troops, 
ordered  out  by  the  syndics,  dispersed  the  rioters. 
Some  blood  had  been  shed,  but  Freyburg's 
deputies  in  the  city  undertook  the  task  of  arbi- 
tration, peace-hostages  were  given  on  both  sides, 
and  a  trumpet  summoned  the  citizens  to  hear  the 
herald's  proclamation,  "Every  man  shall  lay 
down  his  arms,  and  return  quietly  home,  without 
quarrel  or  dispute,  under  pain  of  being  hanged." 


The  Victory  Won  i8j 

"For  a  time,  reconciliation  was  the  fashion," 
writes  a  chronicler  of  the  period ;  and  the  Coun- 
cil of  Two  Hundred  made  attempts  Recon- 
to  frame  a  compromise  in  religious  <^^^^^ 
belief  that  might  satisfy  both  parties.  The 
Bible  and  liberty  of  conscience  were  granted 
on  the  one  side,  while  the  authority  of  the 
bishops  and  the  observance  of  fast  days  were 
retained  for  the  Catholics,  and  apparent  har- 
mony was  temporarily  restored.  But  both  par- 
ties were  suspicious  of  the  good  faith  of  their 
former  adversaries,  and  in  May  another  riot 
was  provoked,  during  which  Pierre  Wernli, 
a  Freyburger,  and  a  distinguished  leader  of 
the  Catholic  party,  was  killed.  Freyburg 
demanded  reparation,  the  Catholics  gained 
strength,  and  the  Pope  commanded  the  return 
of  the  Bishop. 

Pierre  La  Baume  had  been  living  at  ease  in 
Arbois,  and  felt  no  disposition  to  encounter  the 
difficulties  that  at  this  juncture  threatened  his 
return  to  the  seat  of  episcopal  authority.  But 
the  papal  will  was  not  to  be  opposed  with 
impunity,  and,  after  obtaining  from  Freyburg 
a  promise  of  protection,  he  prepared  to  obey. 
The  Catholic  party,  believing  their  triumph 
insured,  made  extensive  preparations  for  his 
reception,  while  all  the  Mamelukes  who  had 


184  Annals  of  Switzerland 

left  the  city  anticipated  returning  in  company 
with  the  Prince-Bishop.  When  the  subject  was 
broached  in  the  assembly  of  Two  Hundred,  such 
confusion  ensued  that  the  magistrates  prohibited 
the  admission  of  the  exiles  into  the  city ;  but, 
on  the  day  appointed,  eighty  armed  Catholics, 
utterly  ignoring  the  decree  of  their  syndics, 
announced  their  intention  to  form  a  bodyguard. 
Return  oi  ^^'^  escort  the  Bishop  home.  Thus 
UBatune.  protected.  La  Baume  entered  the  city, 
with  a  large  company,  including  the  chiefs  of 
the  Mameluke  refugees,  and  magistrates  from 
Freyburg.  Hastily  summoning  a  council,  the 
Bishop  inquired  if  the  Genevans  were  prepared 
to  recognize  his  authority.  The  stanch  magis- 
trates who  replied,  affirmed  their  determination 
to  limit  obedience  to  the  terms  of  their  consti- 
tution, and  once  again  patriots  and  Mamelukes 
in  the  unhappy  city  plunged  into  a  series  of 
evasions,  plots,  and  reprisals,  while  from  Frey- 
burg recompense  for  Wernli's  death  was  de- 
manded, and  Bern  strove  in  vain  to  reconcile 
the  angry  opponents.  The  priests,  hoping  to 
establish  their  personal  authority,  confused  the 
people  with  syllogistic  sophistry.  "  He  is  best 
fitted  to  be  judge  who  is  nearest  God.  Eccle- 
siastics are  nearest  God,  therefore  ecclesiastics 
are  best  fitted  to  judge."     "As  there  are  two 


The   Victory  Won  185 

great  lights  in  the  universe,  so  there  are  two 
in  society.  The  Church  is  the  sun  and  the 
State  is  the  moon.  The  moon  has  no  light  of 
her  own,  all  is  derived  from  the  sun.  It  is 
therefore  evident  that  the  Church  possesses 
temporal  jurisdiction  over  the  State." 

The  timid  Bishop  felt  no  confidence  in  the 
fidelity  of  his  supporters,  and  a  few  demonstra- 
tions of  resistance  from  his  oppo-  jughtof 
nents  were  sufficient  to  excite  alarm  t^«Bisii<'P- 
for  his  personal  safety.  He  had  returned  on 
the  1st  of  July,  loudly  proclaiming  his  deter- 
mination to  "bury  the  sect  of  Reformers." 
Before  daylight,  on  the  14th  of  the  same 
month,  with  only  a  few  attendants,  he  fled 
secretly  from  the  city.  The  citizens  awoke  to 
receive  news  of  his  departure ;  and  the  Evangel- 
icals were  jubilant,  while  the  Catholics  were 
in  despair.  By  his  flight  the  Bishop  was  con- 
sidered to  have  relinquished  his  authority,  and, 
ceasing  to  preserve  for  him  even  a  semblance 
of  respect,  the  citizens  coined  a  proverb  indica- 
tive of  indifference:  "Je  ne  m'en  soucie  pas 
plus  que  de  Baume." 

The  priests,  powerless  now  to  prevent  the 
circulation  of  the  Reformed  doctrines,  applied 
to  the  absentee  Bishop  for  authority  to  forbid 
preaching,  and  soon  presented  to  the  council 


1 86  Annals  of  Switzerland 

the  desired  edict.  It  served,  however,  rather 
to  aid  than  to  oppress  their  antagonists,  for 
the  magistrates,  when  called  upon  to  register  a 
decision,  ordained  that  "  in  accordance  with  the 
truth  of  the  Scriptures,  the  Gospel  should  be 
preached  in  Geneva."  When,  to  strengthen 
the  Catholic  influence,  a  Dominican  priest, 
named  Furbity,  was  appointed  to  conduct  ser- 
vice in  the  cathedral,  and  the  Evangelicals  were 
challenged  to  dispute  with  him,  the  influence 
of  Bern  sent  William  Farel  again  to  the  city. 
The  right  to  hear  their  preacher  from  their 
cathedral  desk  was  claimed  by  the  Reformed 
party,  but  to  prevent  so  great  a  desecration  of 
the  sanctuary,  the  Catholics  declared  them- 
selves ready  to  risk  their  lives.  At  this  junc- 
Bern  supports  ture,  Baudichon  de  la  Maisonneuve, 
^"■ei.  Qj^  influential  and  diplomatic  citizen 

of  Geneva,  presented  to  the  council  a  letter 
from  Bern,  which  demanded  that  a  pulpit  be 
provided  for  Farel,  and  threatened  the  prosecu- 
tion of  Furbity  for  his  attacks  upon  a  man 
under  Bernese  protection.  Soon  a  Bernese 
embassy  arrived,  bringing  another  supporter  of 
the  Reformed  faith,  —  the  young  and  modest 
Viret, —  destined  to  prove  a  formidable  adver- 
sary to  the  Catholics. 

Meanwhile  the  Bishop  of  Geneva  watched  the 


The  Victory  Won  187 

progress  of  affairs  from  afar,  and,  too  timid  to 
trust  himself  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city,  yet 
unwilling  to  relinquish  his  semblance  of  power, 
he  signed  at  Arbois  a  document  which  gave 
authority  to  a  lieutenant  to  execute  law  in  his 
name.  A  new  scheme  was  concocted  by  the 
crafty  ecclesiastic,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Freyburg  council,  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  the 
Mameluke  party ;  but  the  accidental  capture  by 
the  patriots  of  some  private  papers  belonging 
to  La  Baume  rendered  these  projects  abortive. 
The  documents  revealed  the  Bishop  as  an  insti- 
gator of  discord  in  Geneva,  and  convinced  the 
syndics  that  to  secure  themselves  against  his 
intrigues  the  most  ultra  measures  were  neces- 
sary. Then  in  the  Great  Council  of  the  "  White 
City  of  the  Lake  "  a  resolution  was  deliberately 
and  solemnly  adopted  to  renounce, 

•^  ^        .  '    Authority  of 

thenceforth,  the  authority  of  a  bishop,   the  Bishop 

J    ,       ,  J         1       1.  •        renounced. 

and  to  be  governed  only  by  magis- 
trates favorable  to  the  Reformation  and  to  the 
Swiss  alliance. 

Still  the  churches  were  claimed  for  the  old 
worship,  and,  failing  to  find  another  place  large 
enough  to  accommodate  the  crowds  who  gathered 
to  listen  to  Farel,  de  la  Maisonneuve  led  the 
Huguenots  to  Rive,  and,  taking  possession  of 
the  convent  and  court,  informed  the  scandalized 


1 88  Annals  of  Switzerland 

monks  that  Farel  would  preach  there.  Service 
was  publicly  announced  by  the  ringing  of  the 
convent  bells,  and  a  motley  assembly,  embrac- 
ing priests  and  monks,  as  well  as  Huguenots, 
gathered  to  listen  to  the  ardent  and  earnest 
preacher,  whose  influence  from  that  day  ex- 
tended over  many  of  the  priestly  class.  Some 
advocates  of  the  new  doctrines,  impelled  to  a 
fanatical  zeal,  destroyed  images  in  the  Fran- 
ciscan cloister,  but  the  syndics  of  Geneva 
quickly  enforced  order,  and  imprisoned  the 
iconoclasts. 

Instigated  by  Catholic  princes  and  prelates, 
and  influenced  by  the  Emperor's  wish  for  the 
Destruction  reinstallation  of  the  Bishop,  the 
of  St.  Victor's.  Duke  of  Savoy  sought  to  force  from 
the  Genevans  a  recantation  of  the  doctrines 
they  had  accepted,  and  ere  long  castles  in  the 
city's  vicinity  were  garrisoned  by  Savoyards, 
while  at  Luzem  a  Swiss  assembly  consented  to 
the  Duke's  demand  for  the  return  of  La  Baume. 
While  from  Gex,  where  he  had  located  himself 
in  safety,  the  Bishop  hurled  bolts  of  excommun- 
ication against  his  recreant  subjects,  Geneva 
received  the  bitter  tidings  that  Bern  had  de- 
serted her.  But  the  resolute  citizens  declared 
their  determination  sooner  to  set  fire  to  the  four 
comers  of  their  town  than  surrender  their  right 


The  Victory  Won  189 

to  freedom  of  worship,  and,  more  securely  to 
fortify  themselves  against  assault,  they  demol- 
ished many  strong  places  in  their  suburbs.  ^ 

Still  undismayed,  although  in  extreme  peril 
of  their  lives,  Farel,  Viret,  and  the  evangelist 
Froment,  pursued  their  work.  In  a  public 
theological  discussion,  a  victory  was  won  by  the 
Reformers,  which  silenced  the  champions  of  the 
Pope  and  procured  the  abolition  of  the  Mass. 
The  Duke  of  Savoy  pronounced  Geneva  plague- 
stricken,  and  in  obstinate  pursuit  of  victory 
again  appealed  for  Bernese  aid ;  but,  weary  of 
the  long  struggle,  Bern  declined  again  to  par- 
ticipate, unless  as  mediator.  A  little  band 
from  Neuchitel,  roused  to  sympathy  for  Geneva, 
ventured  to  her  relief  under  the  command  of 
Jacques  Baillod,  surnamed,  from  his  courageous 
temperament,  "  Wildermuth. "  Near  Gingins 
they  defeated  a  force  belonging  to  the  knights 
of  the  Spoon ;  but  before  any  actual  relief  for  the 
beleaguered  city  had  been  secured,  Bernese  dep- 
uties persuaded  Wildermuth  to  retire,  and  with 
strategies  and  reprisals  the  conflict  continued. 

A  change  of  policy  on  the  part  of  Bern  was 
at  last  induced  by  the  ambitious  projects  of  the 

1  The  first  walls  destroyed  were  those  of  St.  Victor's  :  The 
priory  had  been  founded  in  the  sixth  century  by  Queen  Sede- 
lenba,  sister  to  Clotilda,  in  memory  of  the  victories  of  Clovis. 


190 


Annals  of  Switzerland 


King  of  France.  Francis  I.,  desirous  of  pos- 
interfereuce  sessing  Milan,  regarded  Savoy  as  a 
of  France.  profitable  preliminary  acquisition, 
and,  with  the  ultimate  aim  of  provoking  a  war 
with  the  Duke,  he  despatched  a  body  of  troops 
to  the  relief  of  Geneva.  Bern,  jealous  of 
French  influence  on  territory  that  she  coveted, 
immediately  declared  war  against  Savoy,  on 
the  pretext  of  violations  of  the  treaty  of  St. 
Julien;  and,  marching  an  army  into  the  district 
of  Vaud,  the  Bernese  set  fire  to  Savoyard  fort- 
resses, and  desolated  the  land.  Geneva  was 
Capture  of  speedily  relieved  from  the  environ- 
chiuon.  ment  of  the  Spoon  League,  and  the 
entire  Pays  de  Vaud  passed  into  the  possession 
of  Bern.  On  the  27th  of  March,  Chillon  was 
captured  by  an  army  of  combined 
Bernese  and  Genevese  troops.  When, 
having  sought  out  the  dungeon  of  the  prior  of 
St.  Victor's,  the  liberators  shouted,  "Bonni- 
Reieaseof  vard,  you  are  free!"  the  captive's 
Bonnivard.  response  echoed  along  the  vaulted 
archways,  "Et  Geneve?"  Triumphantly  the 
answering  shout  was  repeated,  "  Geneva  also  is 
free ! "  and  Bonnivard  came  forth  to  find  the 
city  he  had  left  under  papal  sway  and  subject 
to  Savoyard  tyranny,  a  free  republic,  strong  in 
the  Evangelical  faith. 


The  Victory  Won  191 

An  unanticipated  danger  was  presented  in  the 
attempt  made  by  the  lords  of  Bern  to  claim 
the  prerogatives  of  former  bishops 
in  the  city,  but  the  threatened  feud 
ended  in  an  amicable  agreement  of  co-burgher- 
ship  between  "the  free  towns  of  Bern  and 
Geneva. " 

Meanwhile  a  French  army  had  invaded  Savoy, 
and  Charles  III.,  abandoned  by  the  Emperor, 
and  robbed  of  his  possessions,  ended 
his  life,  at  the  close  of  the  year, 
in  dejection  and  misery.  His  son,  Emanuel 
Philibert,  succeeded  in  recovering  his  inherit- 
ance from  the  French,  but  left  Geneva  unmo- 
lested. 

On  the  27th  of  May,  1536,  the  bell  of  St. 
Peter's  again  summoned  the  citizens  to  assemble 
within  the  cathedral  walls.  With  unanimity, 
unbroken  by  a  dissenting  voice,  an  TheEstab- 
oath  was  solemnly  taken,  "to  abolish  ti^eformed 
the  mass,  images,  idols,  and  other  Religion, 
papal  abuses,"  and  to  live  "according  to  the 
Word  of  God,  as  it  is  daily  preached." 


CHAPTER   XVII 

CALVIN    IN   GENEVA 

1536-15^4 

From  the  tottering  republic  of  Geneva,  neither 
political  nor  religious  anarchy  could  be  imme- 
diately banished,  although  the  council  legalized 
the  new  form  of  worship,  and  decreed  the 
administration  three  times  a  year  of  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  Supper.  When  the  same 
authority  abolished  all  festival  days  except 
Sunday,  and  forbade  all  worldly  entertain- 
ments, restraints  were  imposed,  against  which 
a  large  number  of  the  citizens  rebelled,  and  the 
stentorian  voice  of  Farel  inveighed  ineffectually 
against  indulgence  in  prohibited  recreations. 

The  zealous,  resolute,  and  fearless  evangelist 
was  struggling  against  antagonistic  influences 

that  threatened   to  overpower  him, 
caiTto. 

when,  in  August,  1536,  Calvin  arrived 

in  Geneva.     A  fugitive  from  his  native  France, 

on   account   of   his   advocacy   of   ecclesiastical 

reform,  Calvin,  during  two  years,  had  been  a 


Calvin  in  Geneva  193 

wanderer.  At  Strassburg  he  had  published  the 
first  Latin  edition  of  his  "  Institutes  of  the 
Christian  Religion,"  —  a  work  styled,  by  his 
enemies,  "the  Koran  of  the  Heretics."  In  the 
spring  of  the  same  year  he  visited  the  court  of 
Ferrara,  where  the  good  Duchess  Ren^e  wel- 
comed all  who  were  in  sympathy  with  the  new 
religion.  Returning  thence  to  Strassburg,  with 
the  intention  of  remaining  in  that  city  for  a 
period  of  quiet  study,  Calvin  rested  over-night 
in  Geneva.  News  of  his  arrival  having  been 
carried  to  Farel,  the  evangelist  at  once  deter- 
mined to  secure  the  assistance  of  his  fellow- 
countrj'man  in  the  toilsome  task  of  reforming 
the  pleasure-loving  city  of  the  Lake.  With 
characteristic  vehement  eloquence  he  pleaded 
for  assistance,  while  Calvin,  protesting  unfit- 
ness for  the  duty  and  desire  for  study,  resolutely 
refused  to  listen  to  his  importunities.  At 
length,  the  inflexible  Farel  declared  that  the 
curse  of  God  would  rest  upon  his  compatriot  if 
he  persisted  in  his  refusal,  and  so  vehemently 
urged  the  claims  of  his  work  that  Calvin  de- 
clared he  felt  as  if  the  hand  of  the  Almighty 
had  been  stretched  out  from  Heaven  and  laid 
upon  him. 

The  promise  to  remain  was  gained,  but  for 
a  while  Calvin  seems  to  have  worked  almost 
13 


194  Annals  of  Switzerland 

incognito  in  Geneva.  A  decree  of  the  coun- 
cil is  recorded,  showing  that,  in  response  to  a 
request  from  Farel,  "six  ^cus^  and  a  cloth 
coat  "  were  bestowed  upon  "  that  Frenchman 
recently  arrived,"  whose  lectures  were  declared 
upon  the  authority  of  his  co-laborer  to  be  "  very 
necessary  to  the  welfare  of  the  city."  Public 
attention  was  directed  toward  the  preacher  by 
his  eloquent  utterances  in  an  important  dispu- 
tation at  Lausanne,  which,  in  September,  1536, 
he  attended  in  company  with  Farel.  Upon  his 
return  his  instructive  extemporaneous  lectures 
at  St.  Peter's  were  continued,  and  a  catechism, 
which  he  formulated,  was  sanctioned  by  the 
council,  in  conjunction  with  a  confession  of 
faith  drawn  up  by  Farel.  Regulations  for  the 
conduct  of  daily  life  were  at  this  time  publicly 
promulgated,  and  any  violation  of  their  restric- 
tions was  punished  by  the  magistrates. 

The  following  laws  are  recorded :  — 

"Violators  of  the  Sabbath  shall  receive  pub- 
lic admonition  from  the  pulpit." 

"The  gamester  shall  be  exposed  in  the 
pillory,  with  a  pack  of  cards  tied  around  his 
neck." 

"A  dinner  for  ten  persons  shall  consist  of  no 
more  than  five  dishes. " 

1  About  eighteen  francs. 


Calvin  in  Geneva  195 

On  the  20th  of  May,  1537,  the  records  show 
that  a  bride  who  had  walked  out  on  the  pre- 
ceding Sunday,  with  her  hair  curled  to  an 
extent  deemed  unseemly,  was  sentenced  to 
imprisonment,  together  with  her  companions 
and  the  hairdresser  whose  art  had  been  thus 
exhibited. 

Such  limitations,  in  minor  matters  of  con- 
duct, provoked  a  fierce  opposition  from  the 
liberal  party  in  Geneva,  who  were  known  as 
"Libertines,"  and  the  discord  was  increased 
when  the  council  made  the  acceptance  of  the 
Evangelical  confession  of  faith  obligatory  upon 
every  citizen.  November  12,  was  appointed  for 
those  who  had  not  already  taken  the  oath  of 
assent  to  assemble  in  the  cathedral  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  whoever  refused  to  comply  was  sen- 
tenced to  banishment.  Calvin  had  insisted 
upon  his  authority  to  exclude  from  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  Supper  any  whom  he 
deemed  unworthy  to  partake,  and  disputes  upon 
this  point  threatened  anarchy.  The  Bernese 
blamed  the  council  for  the  disorder,  and  at 
length  the  syndics  decreed  that  the  sacrament 
should  not  be  refused  to  any  one.  ^  At  the  next 
election,  the  magistrates  chosen  were  all  antag- 
onistic to  the  Reformation,  and  Calvin  was  soon 
1  See  "  Registers  of  Geneva,"  January  3  and  4,  1538. 


196  Annals  of  Switzerland 

seriously  fettered  in  his  work,  while,  through- 
out the  city,  disorders  prevailed  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  evangelists 
informed  the  council  that  it  would  be  "  impos- 
sible to  administer  the  sacrament  in  the  midst 
of  such  profligacies  and  blasphemies."  There- 
upon Calvin,  Farel,  and  Viret  were  alike  for- 
bidden to  hold  any  religious  services;  but, 
despite  the  injunction,  each  entered 

Banishment  '-  ^ 

of  the  his  pulpit  at  the  customary  hour  on 

*"^^  *  Easter  Sunday.  Motley  crowds,  in- 
cluding both  adversaries  and  friends,  attended, 
and  at  the  evening  service,  in  Calvin's  church, 
the  excitement  reached  such  a  crisis  that  swords 
were  drawn,  and  bloodshed  was  with  difficulty 
prevented,  while  the  escort  of  a  guard  was 
necessary  to  attend  the  preacher  home. 

The  following  day  the  proposition  of  the  syn- 
dics, to  imprison  the  ministers  for  violation 
of  magisterial  ordinances,  was  changed  by  the 
council  to  sentences  of  banishment.  Calvin 
went  to  Strassburg,  where  he  entered  upon  the 
charge  of  a  church  of  French  refugees,  while 
Farel  was  warmly  welcomed  at  Neuchdtel,  and 
Viret  became  pastor  at  Lausanne.  Bernese 
envoys  to  Geneva  remonstrated  against  the 
expulsion  of  the  preachers,  but  the  Libertine 
party  swayed  the  council,  and  no  repeal  of  the 


Calvin  in  Geneva  197 

decree  could  be  obtained.  Many  institutions 
opposed  by  the  evangelists  were  soon  re-estab- 
lished; and  so  strong  was  the  reaction  in  the 
city,  that  the  Bishop  even  cherished  a  hope  of 
reinstalment.  The  Pope  solicited  the  aid  of 
neighboring  ecclesiastics  in  the  work  of  prose- 
lytizing anew  the  Genevese,  and  a  letter  was 
written,  inviting  them  to  return  to  the  bosom 
of  the  Church.  This  document,  prepared  by  a 
French  bishop,  named  Sadoleto,  was  received 
by  the  council  on  the  26th  of  March,  1539. 
They  were  in  deliberation  upon  a  reply,  when 
an  address  sent  to  Sadoleto  by  Calvin  was  made 
public,  and  produced  everywhere  a  profound 
impression. 

Calvin  had  read,  at  Strassburg,  the  letter  of 
Sadoleto  to  the  Genevese;  and  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  his  Strassburg  friends,  "ap- 

°  ^     Calvin's 

prehending  what  evil  it  might  bring  Letter  to 
to  Geneva,"  he  undertook  the  task  of 
composing  a  reply.  His  letter,  said  Luther, 
"had  hands  and  feet,"  and  struck  an  effective 
blow  at  the  Catholic  party.  Published  in 
Geneva,  it  induced  a  strong  reaction  in  favor 
of  the  banished  preacher.  Already  the  politi- 
cal clique  that  had  exiled  the  evangelists  was 
divided;  the  leaders  of  the  Libertine  party, 
having  become  offensive  to  their  partisans,  had 


198  Annals  of  Switzerland 

been  in  their  turn  banished;  and  the  distract- 
ing condition  of  the  city,  where  disorders  were 
rapidly  increasing,  caused  the  magistrates  to 
repent  the  expulsion  of  the  pastors.  The  citi- 
caivin's  ^ens  united  with  the  council  in  an 
Recau.  urgent  call  for  Calvin's  return,  and 

in  1 541,  reluctantly  yielding  to  the  repeated 
summons,  the  preacher  re-entered  the  city,  was 
installed  in  a  house  near  the  cathedral,  and 
decreed  an  annual  salary  of  five  hundred  florins, 
twelve  measures  of  wheat,  and  two  tubs  of 
wine. 

While  in  Strassburg  he  had  married  Idelette 
de  Buren,  "a  grave  and  pious  widow,"  whose 
first  husband  he  had  converted  from  the  Ana- 
baptist belief. 

Calvin  returned  to  Geneva,  he  states,  "with 
sadness,  tears,  anxiety,  and  distress  of  mind,  at 
taking  again  so  great  a  burden. "  The  number 
of  Libertines  in  the  city  was  still  sufficient  to 
form  a  dangerous  faction,  and  in  sympathy  with 
them  upon  many  points  was  another  party, 
who  called  themselves  Patriots.  To  deter  the 
reformer  from  the  prosecution  of  his  work, 
various  acts  of  insubordination  were  attempted. 
Shots  were  fired  in  the  night  at  his  door.  He 
was  set  upon  by  dogs,  and  his  clothing  and 
flesh  torn.     But  unflinchingly  and  without  vin- 


Calvin  in  Geneva  199 

dictiveness  he  pursued  his  way,  and  under  his 
controlling  influence  both  the  civil  and  the 
ecclesiastical  laws  of  the  "  Protestant  Rome " 
were  reformulated  upon  the  basis  of  a  co-oper- 
ative union  of  Church  and  State.  The  city 
councils  retained  their  prerogatives,  but  eccle- 
siastical discipline  was  vested  in  the  hands  of 
six  preachers  and  twelve  laymen,  who  formed 
the  Consistory.  This  body  also  exercised  a 
general  moral  supervision  over  the  citizens, 
and  held  the  power  of  excommunication,  with 
that  of  transferring  to  the  magistrates,  for  dis- 
cipline, all  criminals  deemed  by  them  guilty 
of  penal  offences. 

By  the  stern  code  of  laws  then  adopted,  death 
by  fire  was  the  penalty  of  heresy.  All  dancing 
and  card-playing  were  forbidden.  To  give  the 
name  of  a  Catholic  saint  to  a  child  was  a  penal 
offence;  drunkenness  and  blasphemy  were  pun- 
ished with  severity,  and  in  1568  a  child  was 
beheaded  for  striking  its  parents,  while  another, 
for  attempting  the  same  offence,  was  whipped 
through  the  streets,  and  banished  from  the 
city. 

The  ministers,  who  were  known  as  the 
"Venerable  Company,"  met  once  a  week  for 
"mutual  fraternal  censure."  A  school  was 
established  which  received  pupils  from  Basle, 


200  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Bern,  and  even  from  Zurich.  Instruction  was 
given  in  "  the  three  most  excellent  languages, 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Latin,"  as  well  as  in 
French,  and  lessons  began  at  five  o'clock  in 
the  morning.  Geneva,  "the  theological  city," 
became  an  asylum  for  religious  refugees,  while 
from  thirty-four  printing-presses  the  Reformed 
doctrines  were  scattered  abroad.^  Here  Calvin 
continued  to  labor  uninterruptedly  for  twenty- 
three  years,  preaching  and  teaching,  writing 
theological  treatises,  and  corresponding  with 
theologians,  nobles,  and  princes,  attending  the 
meetings  of  the  Consistory  and  of  the  Senate, 
entertaining  strangers,  and  counselling  all  who 
appealed  to  him  for  advice.  The  biographers, 
who  censure  most  severely  his  bigotry  and  the 
harshness  of  his  judgments,  admit  the  purity 
of  his  motives,  and  his  unswerving  fidelity  to 
duty.  His  personal  humility  and  his  strict- 
ness in  self-discipline  were  prominent  traits, 
often  overlooked  in  the  contemplation  of  his 
austerity  and  censoriousness.  He  has  been 
compared  to  a  Roman  censor,  and  to  a  Hebrew 
prophet,^  while  despotic  treatment  of  all  who 

*  The  so-called  "  five  points  of  Calvinism "  are :  Uncondi- 
tional election,  limited  atonement,  the  impotency  of  the  human 
will,  irresistible  grace,  and  the  perseverance  of  all  believers. 

2  Review  of  German  authors  on  Calvin  by  Dr.  Scha£f  in 
"  Princeton  Review,"  April,  1875. 


Calvin  in  Geneva  201 

differed  from  him  in  religious  opinion  is  ascribed 
to  his  strong  conviction  of  the  responsibility 
of  rulers  for  the  extermination  of  heresy;  a 
principle  universally  accepted,  previous  to  the 
seventeenth  century.  ^ 

A  conspicuous  instance  of  Calvin's  unyield- 
ing severity  was  shown  in  the  doom  decreed 
to  the  Spanish  theologian,  Michael 
Servetus,  whose  denial  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  had  placed  him  in  antag- 
onism to  both  Catholics  and  Protestants.  In 
a  correspondence  with  Calvin,  Servetus  did  not 
hesitate  to  attack  the  Christian  creed,  and  in 
his  books,  "Errors  of  the  Trinity,"  and  "The 
Restoration  of  Christianity,"  he  gave  publicity 
to  sentiments  so  obnoxious  that  difficulty  was 
experienced  in  getting  the  latter  work  printed. 
Arrested  in  Lyons,  Servetus  was  carried  before 
an  ecclesiastical  court,  but  contrived  to  escape 
that  surveillance,  and  was  on  his  way  to  Italy, 
where  he  anticipated  less  opposition,  when,  by 
Calvin's  command,  he  was  arrested  in  Geneva. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  Calvin  believed  he 
would  be  able  to  force  from  his  adversary  a 
recantation  of  his  published  dogmas,  and  that 
the  Reformer  did  not  anticipate  the  fatal  result 
of  the  arrest  he  commanded,  although  personal 

^  See  Fisher's  "  History  of  the  Reformation." 


202  Annals  of  Switzerland 

antipathies  were  doubtless  united  to  doctrinal 
differences  between  the  controversialists.  After 
the  imprisonment  of  Servetus,  Calvin  wrote  to 
Farel :  "  I  hope  the  sentence  will  be  capital, 
but  desire  the  atrocity  of  the  punishment  to 
be  abated.  "1 

But  Servetus  steadfastly  refused  to  retract  or 
to  modify  any  of  his  doctrines,  and  boldly 
demanded  Calvin's  punishment  for  malicious 
prosecution.  Contrary  to  his  expectation,  his 
claims  failed  to  receive  consideration  from  the 
council,  who  condemned  him  to  die  at  the  stake 
on  the  27th  of  October,  1553. 

At  this  period  Calvin  had  many  political 
adversaries  in  Geneva.  At  the  head  of  the 
Libertine  party  stood  a  son  of  the  patriot 
Berthelier,  to  whom  the  Reformer  had  recently 
refused  the  sacrament.  A  conflict  with  Ber- 
thelier's  adherents  ensued,  when  they  attempted 
to  supplant  the  authority  of  the  Consistory  by 
that  of  the  Senate;  but  their  efforts,  though 
culminating  in  armed  insurrection,  were  soon 
overpowered,  Berthelier  was  executed,  and  the 
Libertine  party  was  rendered  impotent  for 
further  manoeuvres. 

Geneva  was  at  last  free  from  faction;  and, 
although  called  by  the  Pope  "a  nest  of  devils 

1  See  Dyer's  "  Life  of  Calvin." 


Calvin  in  Geneva 


203 


and  apostates,"  the  industrious  and  Christian 
republic  became  "the  hearthstone  of  Protes- 
tantism," the  city  of  which  John  Knox  wrote: 
"Elsewhere  the  word  of  God  is  taught  as 
purely,  but  never,  anywhere,  have  I  seen  God 
obeyed  as  faithfully." 

In  this  fair  city  of  his  adoption,  at  the  close 
of  a  day  in  May,  1564,  Calvin  died,  worn  out 
with  labor  and  anxiety,  although  not  quite 
forty-five  years  of  age.  The  republic  mourned 
for  the  preacher  who  had  served  it  with  unde- 
viating  conscientious  faithfulness,  but  his  com- 
mands forbade  them  to  mark  his  grave  by  any 
monument  in  the  cemetery  of  Plainpalais.  The 
traveller  seeks  in  vain  for  the  resting-place  of 
the  Reformer,  who  has  been  called  by  a 
modem  sceptic  "  the  most  Christian  man  of  his 
generation." 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

THE   BORROMEAN    LEAGUE 
1555-1641 

In  Locarno,  and  other  Italian  districts  over 
which  Swiss  authority  had  been  extended,  the 
Unitarian  doctrines,  promulgated  by  Socinius, 
gained  many  adherents ;  but  ere  long  the  instal- 
lation of  Catholic  bailiffs  drove  into  exile  all 
who  had  openly  embraced  the  new  faith.  In 
Emigrants  ^555  °^^  hundred  and  fifty  Italian 
from  Italy,  families  emigrated  to  the  north  of 
the  Alps,  carrying  with  them  the  Southern  art 
of  silk-weaving. 

A  powerful  coalition  against  Protestantism 
was  formed  in  Europe  soon  after  the  accession 
to  the  throne  of  Spain  of  the  gloomy  and 
bigoted  Philip  IL,  and,  fortified  by  the  new 
orders  of  Jesuits  and  Capuchins,  the  coadjutants 
extended  their  influence  into  Switzerland.  In 
1564,  profiting  by  the  stimulated  antipathy  to 
Reform,  Emanuel  Philibert  of  Savoy  demanded 


The  Borromean  League  205 

of  the  Swiss  the  restitution  of  lands  conquered 
by  them  in  1536,  and  Bern  was  forced  reluc- 
tantly to  relinquish  a  portion  of  territory.  In 
the  region  restored  to  him,  the  Duke  installed 
a  company  of  Jesuits  under  the  guidance  of 
the  gentle  and  strong  Francois  de  Sales,  and 
through  the  instrumentality  of  this  "Bishop  of 
Geneva "  Catholicism  was  re-established  in  a 
portion  of  the  district  recently  evangelized. 

Meanwhile,  Cardinal  Charles  Borromeo,  the 
zealous  Archbishop  of  Milan,  journeyed  on  foot 
through  Switzerland,  laboring  to  unite  the  mem- 
bers of  the  confederacy  in  a  league  pledged  to 
support  Catholicism,  and  to  wage  a  holy  war 
against  the  Protestants,  while  other  emissaries 
of  the  Pope  exerted  themselves  to  sow  through- 
out the   cantons  seeds   of   civil  dis-  ,  _ 

Influence  of 

cord,    in    order   thus   to   arrest    the  charies 
spread  of  the  Reformation.     Antag- 
onisms thus  excited  waxed   so   bitter  between 
adherents  of  differing  faiths  that  in    1582  the 
Protestants  refused  to  receive  the  new  calendar 
of  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 

In  1580  Borromeo  succeeded  in  establishing 

a   papal   nuncio    in   Luzern,   and    in 
^  ^  'The 

1586  the  oath  of  the  Borromean  or  Borromean 

Golden  League  was  taken  by  seven 

cantons, —  the  four  Waldstatten,  Zug,  Freyburg, 


2o6  Annals  of  Switzerland 

and  Solothurn.^  By  one  of  its  articles  this 
compact  was  pronounced  superior  in  authority 
to  the  original  Bundesbrief  of  the  confed- 
eracy. It  bound  the  cantons  to  take  up  arms 
against  any  in  their  midst  who  should  tolerate 
the  doctrines  of  the  Reformed  religion,  and  a 
necessary  sequence  of  its  acceptance  was  the 
severance  of  ties  with  all  who  had  embraced 
Protestantism.  The  incorporation  of  the  Borro- 
mean  league  marked  the  final  division  of  the 
cantons  into  two  antagonistic  religious  parties. 
In  1557,  the  desire  of  Geneva  to  enter  the 
Helvetic  league  met  refusal,  owing  to  a  Catho- 
lic majority  in  the  Diet;  and  the  adverse  vote 
was  emphasized  by  Louis  Pfyffer,  the  avoyer 
of  Luzern,  and  a  dominating  spirit  among  the 
Catholics,  who  publicly  expressed  a  wish  for 
Savoyard  ^^  ^ery  extermination  of  the  city  of 
Ambition.  Calvin.  Emanuel  Philibert  of  Savoy, 
becoming  cognizant  of  the  antagonistic  disposi- 
tion fostered  throughout  Catholic  Switzerland 
toward  Geneva,  projected  fresh  schemes  for 
the  conquest  of  the  city ;  but,  baffled  in  these, 
turned  toward  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  and  marched 
an  army  against  Lausanne.  There  the  burgo- 
master, Isbrand  d'Aux,  a  pensioner  of  Savoy, 

A  These  cantons  with  Valais  and  Ticino  form  the  present 
Catholic  Switzerland. 


The  Borromean  League  207 

stood  ready  to  deliver  everything  into  his  hands ; 
but  the  traitorous  designs  were  revealed  by  a 
Vaudois,  named  David  de  Cronsaz,  and  evoked 
from  Bern  a  declaration  of  war  against  the 
Duke.  The  commander  of  the  Bernese  army, 
Jean  de  Wattenwyl,  was  secretly  in  league  with 
Savoy,  and  when  his  transactions  were  exposed 
the  indignant  citizens  of  Bern  forced  him  into 
exile.  But  as  city-avoyer,  his  sentiments  had 
influenced  the  senate  of  Bern  in  large  measure, 
and  Geneva  must  have  remained  subject  to 
Savoyard  aggressions,  had  it  not  received  the 
support  of  the  French  king.  Henry  of  Navarre 
volunteered  to  protect  the  city,  and  in  1598, 
by  the  treaty  of  Vervins,  France  received,  in 
compensation  for  this  service,  the  district  of 
Gex. 

A  final  attempt  to  grasp  Geneva  was  made 
in  1602,  when  the  reigning  Duke,  Charles 
Emanuel  of  Savoy,  deemed  the  opportunity  for 
success  at  hand,  and  on  a  dark  December  night 
approached  the  unsuspicious  city.  Incited  by 
words  from  the  Jesuit  priests,  "Mount  cour- 
ageously; every  round  of  the  ladder  is  a  step 
toward  Heaven,"  the  Savoyard  soldiers  scaled 
the  walls  without  alarming  the  sentinels.  The 
citizens,  awakened  by  outcries  in  the  streets, 
found  several  hundreds  of  the  enemy  already 


2o8  Annals  of  Switzerland 

within  their  gates,  but,  defending  themselves 
with  intrepid  bravery,  they  repulsed  the  in- 
vaders, and  took  captive  thirteen  nobles  of 
Savoy,  who,  after  the  Duke  and  his  army  had 
been  forced  to  retire,  were  speedily  put  to  death. 
This  audacious  exploit  of  the  "  Escalade " 
roused  Protestant  Europe  against  the  Duke  of 
The  Savoy.     His  embassy  to  Bern,  sent 

"Escalade."  yf[i}^  excuses  for  infringement  of  the 
treaty  with  that  canton,  was  received  with 
disrespect,  and  a  general  war  then  threatened 
was  averted  only  by  the  instrumentality  of 
France,  Spain,  and  the  Pope.  At  St.  Julien, 
Peace  of  J^^V  21,  1603,  the  terms  of  a  peace 
st.juuen.  y^QYQ  dictated,  which  prohibited  the 
advance  of  Savoyard  troops  within  sixteen  miles 
of  Geneva. 

Again  was  Switzerland  doomed  to  be  deso- 
lated by  disasters.  A  plague  visited  Basle  in 
1 6 10,  sweeping  away  nearly  four  thousand 
inhabitants,  and  the  year  following  nearly  a 
quarter  of  the  entire  population  of  the  interior 
were  destroyed  by  a  similar  scourge. 

In  161 8  the  rich  town  of  Pleurs,  in  the  Chia- 

venna,  was   buried   beneath  a  land- 
Dlaosters. 

slide,  and  twenty-five  hundred  lives 

were  lost.     But,  these  calamities  failed  to  divert 


The  Borromean  League  209 

the  survivors  from  their  civil  conflicts,  and  a 
new  apple  of  discord  between  the  Swiss  and 
the  Hapsburgers  was  fast  ripening. 

After  the  victory  of  Pavia  (1525)  had  secured 
to  Spain  all  Lombardy,  the  district  of  the 
Valtelina  ^  was  coveted  by  the  Spanish  king  as 
affording  the  most  direct  route  between  the 
Tyrol  and  Milan.  France,  watching  with  jeal- 
ous eyes  every  effort  of  her  formidable  rival  for 
the  acquisition  of  territory,  warned  the  Grisons 
of  designs  to  despoil  them.  Many  wvisioiisin 
lords  of  the  region  had  been  bribed  *^*  Griaom. 
to  partisanship,  and  cliques,  led  by  members  of 
the  two  most  influential  families  in  the  country, 
Planta  and  Sal  is,  espoused  respec-  piantaand 
tively  the  Spanish  and  the  French  ^"^^ 
interests,  while  the  faction  of  Travers  worked 
for  the  Venetians,  and  the  national  party  re- 
fused any  foreign  alliance  or  influence.  Be- 
tween the  years  1574  and  1665  civil  war  raged 
in  the  Grisons,  and  the  intervention  of  the  con- 
federates secured  only  a  temporary  calm.  A 
free  Rhetia  was  to  be  the  Phoenix  born  of 
many  desolated  villages. 

A  crisis   of   excitement   occurred  when   the 
communes  established  a  criminal  court  at  Chur, 

1  The  Valtelina  was  acquired  by  the  Swiss  after  the  battle 
of  Marignano. 

14 


aio  Annals  of  Switzerland 

for  trial  of  all  who  were  suspected  of  an  influ- 
ence prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  the  country. 
Innocent  as  well  as  guilty  were  proscribed,  and 
religious  differences  fanned  the  flames  of  polit- 
ical opposition.  A  report  that  the  Viceroy  of 
Milan  meditated  a  massacre  of  Protestants 
moved  the  people  to  such  a  frenzy  that  Planta 
was  forced  to  fly,  and  the  Reformed  party,  tem- 
porarily triumphant,  banished  or  put  to  death 
many  of  the  opposite  faith.  The  exiled  per- 
sons conspired  with  the  Hapsburgs  for  an  inva- 
sion of  their  country  and  the  extirpation  of 
the  Protestant  religion.  The  brothers  Planta 
were  leaders  of  a  band  who,  in  1620,  attacked 
villages  in  the  Valtelina,  perpetrated  fright- 
ful barbarities,  and  ruthlessly  murdered  men, 
women,  and  children.  Six  hundred  persons 
The  St  Bar-  ^^^  estimated  to  have  perished  in 
thoiomewof  this  so-called  "St.  Bartholomew  of 
the  Grisons. "  Two  thousand  Bernese 
and  one  thousand  Zurichers  marched  to  the  res- 
cue of  their  brethren  in  the  faith,  but  suffered 
defeat  in  a  bloody  battle  (September,  1620), 
The  Gray  League,  Catholic  in  its  preferences, 
declined  to  render  aid,  and,  animated  by  the  sug- 
gestions of  Pompey  Planta,  discussed  the  project 
of  a  separation  from  the  union  of  the  Grisons, 
and  an  alliance  with  the  Waldstatten.     Their 


The  Borromean  League  211 

schemes  were  opposed  by  Jenatsch,  a  Protes- 
tant pastor  in  command  of  troops  belonging  to 
the  national  party.  By  adherents  of  this  fac- 
tion Planta  was  assassinated,  at  his  chMeau  of 
Rielberg,  the  Catholics  were  soon  afterward  de- 
feated in  a  battle  near  Varendas,  and  Jenatsch 
was  master  of  the  Valtelina. 

Then  Austria,  declaring,  "Since  you  wish 
for  war,  you  shall  have  war,"  ordered  her  troops 
into  the  Grisons,  and  the  unhappy  land  suffered 
such  chastisement  as  had  been  endured  by  the 
Waldstatten  in  the  days  of  their  Austrian 
subjugation  to  the  arbitrary  bailiffs  mconioiw- 
of  Austria.  The  peasantry  were  treated  like 
cattle,  and  driven  before  the  lash,  while  Bal- 

deron,    commander   of   the  invading 

Balderon. 
forces,  perpetrated  so  many  atrocities 

that  he  obtained  the  name  of  "the  new  Holo- 
fernes. "  The  Reformed  clergy  were  summarily 
ejected  from  their  pulpits,  and  seventy-five 
churches  became  pastorless;  but  when  an  at- 
tempt to  compel  attendance  at  Mass  was  made, 
the  limit  of  submission  was  passed.  "  If  we 
must  lose  our  liberty,  let  us  save  our  souls ! " 
was  the  cry  of  the  helpless  peasants,  as  they 
fled  from  their  persecutors  into  the  woods.  The 
men  of  Prettigau  attempted  resistance,  and,  hav- 
ing armed  themselves  with  sticks   and  clubs, 


212  Annals  of  Switzerland 

surprised  an  Austrian  garrison  on  Palm  Sunday, 
1622,  killed  four  hundred,  and  drove  the  remnant 
from  the  land.  But  Balderon  returned  with  ten 
thousand  troops,  and  again  there  were  massa- 
cres and  battles  in  the  valleys  and  upon  the 
mountains.  A  little  band  of  thirty  patriots, 
with  heroism  worthy  of  the  men  of  Ther- 
mopylae, faced  the  crowded  Austrian  ranks  in 
a  bitter  battle,  and  fell  there,  one  by  one. 
Attempted  intercession  for  the  unfortunate 
people,  by  the  confederates,  proved  unavailing; 
the  Austrian  grasp  was  strong  and  unyielding. 
At  length  France  interfered,  and,  veiling  secret 
designs  under  the  guise  of  a  protective  friend- 
ship, sent  into  the  Grisons  an  army  under  com- 
mand of  "  the  good  Due  de  Rohan. "  By  this 
assistance  Austria's  troops  were  driven  from 
the  district,  and  the  Valtelina,  that  "  Helen  of 
French  ^  ^^w  Trojan  war,"  was   ransomed. 

Interference.  ^^^  ^j^e  Crafty  Duke  who  guided  the 
helm  of  France  had  projected  further  achieve- 
ments, and  too  late  the  people  of  the  Grisons 
perceived  that  they  had  only  changed  masters. 
Then,  in  a  secret  gathering  at  Chur,  the 
patriots,  with  Jenatsch  at  their  head,  took  a 
solemn  oath  to  liberate  their  land,  and  three 
months  later,  rising  as  one  man,  the  people  of 
the  Grisons  expelled   the   French.     Ambassa- 


The  Borromean  League  213 

dors  were  then  despatched   to  the  courts  of 
France,  Spain,  and  Austria,  and  while  the  bur- 
den of  the  "Thirty  Years'  War"  was  pressing 
heavily  upon  the  nations  they  entered  readily 
into  peaceful  negotiations  with  Grisons.     Soon 
afterward  the  district  included  in  the  rretdom  of 
league  of  the  Ten  Jurisdictions  pur-  tJieGritons, 
chased  the  remaining  rights  of  Austria  in  that 
territory,   and  when  the  lower  Engadine  had 
obtained  equal  immunities  the  Hapsburgs  re- 
mained in  possession  of  but  a  few  insignificant 
prerogatives,  and  the  Grisons  called  itself  free. 
This  independence  was  in  1641  formally  recog- 
nized by  Austria,   France,   and  Spain,   in  the 
treaties  of  Milan  and  Feldkirch. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

FREEDOM    FROM    THE   EMPIRE 
1618-1712 

During  the  period  covered  by  the  "Thirty 
Years'  War"  the  aid  of  the  Swiss  was  solicited 
The  Thirty  ^oth  openly  and  privately  by  Protes- 
Tetrs'War.  tants  and  by  Catholics;  but  every 
temptation  to  engage  in  the  conflict  was  opposed 
by  the  Diet,  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
unforeseen  complications,  a  strict  neutrality 
was  preserved. 

In  one  or  two  places,  where  the  guaranteed 
neutrality  had  been  ignored  by  subordinate 
local  officials,  temporary  disturbances  occurred. 
A  garrison  of  Zurichers,  who  guarded  the  fron- 
tier at  Stein,  in  Thurgau,  allowed  the  Swedish 
army  to  pass  on  its  way  to  Constance.  The 
Austrians  speedily  imitated  the  example  of 
the  Swedes,  and  traversed  Swiss  territory  en 
route  to  the  city  of  Rheinfelden.  The  canton 
of  Schaffhausen  and  the  bishopric  of  Basle 
suffered    seriously  from    the    inroads    of    the 


Freedom  from  the  Empire        215 

Swedes,  who,  in  their  greed  for  plunder,  often 
suspended  the  unhappy  peasants  by  their  feet, 
upon  their  own  hearthstones,  in  the  hope  of 
forcing  from  them  a  renunciation  of  the  wealth 
they  were  suspected  to  possess. 

A  spirit  of  universal  suspicion  was  awakened 
by  these  depredations,  and  between  Protestant 
and  Catholic  cantons  accusations  of  treason  were 
freely  interchanged.  One  side  threatened  to 
send  reinforcements  to  the  Swedish  army  if 
the  other  evinced  partiality  for  the  Austrians, 
and  the  jealous  dissensions  ceased  only  with 
the  termination  of  the  war. 

While  peace  negotiations  were  in  progress  at 
Westphalia,  the  confederates  despatched  to  the 
council  a  firm  and  wise  ambassador,   The  Peace  of 
Rudolf    Wettstein,    burgomaster    of  '^"rt^haii*. 
Basle,  through  whose  skilful  diplomacy,  aided 
by  the  French  envoy,  Henri  de  Longueville, 
a  formal    imperial    acknowledgment 
of  the  independence  and  self-sover- 
eignty of  the  Swiss  was  obtained.     No  longer 
the   Emperor's    mandates   were    addressed    to 
"Subjects,   beloved   and  faithful   to  ourselves 
and    to    the    empire,"   but    by   the    epithets, 
"strong,    steadfast,    honored,    and    especially 
dear,"  the   position   of  the   Swiss  nation  was 
recognized. 


2i6  Annals  of  Switzerland 

The  kingdoms  of  Europe  offered  honorable 
fellowship,  and  with  the  music  of  trumpets  and 
drums  the  imperial  message  was  promulgated 
in  cities,  while  in  every  village  of  the  confed- 
eracy the  declaration  of  independence  was  pub- 
licly read,  amid  rejoicings  only  paralleled  in 
the  heroic  days  of  Morgarten  and  Sempach. 

Although  the  principles  of  democracy  had 
exerted  controlling  authority  in  the  formation 
of  many  Swiss  institutions,  the  spirit  of  the 
community  had  not  been  penetrated  to  the 
entire  exclusion  of  aristocratic  sovereignty, 
and  in  many  portions  of  the  land  the  peasantry 
were  no  better  off  than  when  their  government 
had  been  more  absolute  in  form.  After  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia  had  established  the  con- 
federacy upon  its  firm  basis  of  national  free- 
dom, the  peasants  in  the  larger  cantons,  having 
borne  willing  part  in  the  wars  for  indepen- 
dence, believed  themselves  entitled  to  the 
privileges  long  possessed  by  the  men  of  the 
Waldstatten,  and,  in  conjunction  with  some  less 
legitimate  prerogative,  they  demanded  the  right 
to  elect  their  own  magistrates.  As  the  towns 
The  Peasants'  ^^d  sought  freedom  from  the  rule 
Revolt.  Qf  counts  and  seignors,  the  peasants 

throughout  the  country  now  sought  emancipa- 


Freedom  from  the  Empire        217 

tion  from  the  rule  of  the  towns,  and  complaints 
were  frequent  of  heavy  taxes  imposed  by  city 
officials.  Upon  the  promulgation  of  a  govern- 
ment ordinance  which  depreciated  the  value  of 
the  currency  and  rejected  agricultural  products 
in  payment  of  taxes,  the  widespread  discontent 
ripened  into  resistance.  Three  men  from  the 
town  of  Entlibuch  assumed  the  antique  cos- 
tume of  the  men  of  Riitli,  and,  followed  by 
companions  sounding  Alpine  horns,  led  a  mul- 
titude to  the  town  of  Dorf,  where  deputies  from 
the  cities  were  in  session.  A  demand  for  de- 
creased taxes,  increased  interest  upon  loaned 
money,  and  other  concessions  to  the  populace, 
was  presented  to  the  council  through  the  ban- 
neret Emmenegger,  and  then,  in  company  with 
malcontents  from  ten  bailiwicks,  the  Entli- 
buchers  joined  at  Wollhausen  in  a  solemn 
league  to  maintain  all  the  rights  thus  claimed, 
and  to  meet  opposing  decrees  with  armed 
resistance. 

The  spirit  of  rebellion  thus  manifested  rapidly 
spread,  and  when  the  magistrates  of  Bern  sum- 
moned their  peasantry  to  arm  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  confederacy,  refusals  to  march 
against  their  fellow-sufferers  and  complaints 
of  individual  wrongs  to  be  redressed  were  the 
response  to  the  call.     The  united  troops  of  the 


21 8  Annals  of  Switzerland 

thirteen  cantons  were  then  demanded  by  the 
Vorort,  but  at  the  suggestion  of  Zurich  and 
Luzern  arbitration  was  attempted.  While 
deliberations  were  pending,  the  peasantry  of 
Bern  were  excited  by  the  entrance  upon  their 
territory  of  some  troops  from  Schaffhausen, 
who  had  been  despatched  in  immediate  response 
to  the  call  of  the  Vorort,  and  a  general  rising 
followed,  in  which  the  castles  of  the  land-vogts 
were  assaulted,  and  numerous  acts  of  violence 
committed,  while  through  the  French  ambas- 
sador the  peasants  solicited  foreign  aid. 

These  overtures  were  quickly  betrayed  to  the 
Bernese  government,  and  many  persons  who 
had  been  in  sympathy  with  the  insurgents 
while  their  fidelity  to  their  land  remained  un- 
impeachable, became  opponents  of  their  course 
when  aware  that  French  interference  had  been 
sought. 

At  length  the  deputies  assembled  at  Bern 
succeeded  in  effecting  a  compromise  between 
the  prerogatives  claimed  by  the  magistrates, 
and  the  demands  made  by  the  communes,  and, 
according  to  a  prescribed  programme,  delegates 
from  the  revolted  districts  asked  pardon  of  the 
city  council  for  acts  of  insubordination.  When 
this  transaction  was  made  public  in  the  canton 
of  Luzern,  the  people  censured  the  humiliating 


Freedom  from  the  Empire        219 

action  of  their  delegates,  and  refused  to  recog- 
nize the  obligations  imposed  by  the  terms  of 
the  compromise.  Their  messengers,  despatched 
into  other  cantons,  stimulated  anew  the  popu- 
lace to  rebellion ;  but  the  extravagance  of  the 
measures  suggested  by  inexperienced  leaders, 
and  their  want  of  concerted  action,  rendered 
disaster  inevitable  when  the  strength  of  the 
confederacy  was  united  against  them.  Des- 
perate conflicts  preceded  their  final  subjuga- 
tion ;  but  a  decisive  battle  was  fought  in  June, 
1653,  when  General  Erlach,  with  an  „  _,    , 

•'*''  '  BatUeof 

army  of  Bernese,  encountered  the  Herzogen- 
insurgents  near  Herzogenbuchsee. 
Upon  arriving  at  this  point,  Erlach  discovered 
that  his  force  was  surrounded  by  antagonists, 
who  were  concealed  in  the  neighboring  woods ; 
and  when  he  commanded  the  village  to  be  fired, 
the  desperate  peasants  fought  from  burning 
windows  and  roofs,  and  sent  death-dealing 
shots  from  the  falling  walls  of  their  homes. 
When  at  last  they  were  overpowered,  a  punish- 
ment, universal  in  extent  was  decreed,  and 
neither  the  young  for  his  strength,  nor  the  old 
for  his  white  hair,  was  spared.  Many  were 
put  to  death  with  bitter  suffering ;  upon  others 
heavy  fines  were  imposed,  while  all  who  fled 
were   declared    outlaws   of    the   empire.     The 


220  Annals  of  Switzerland 

three  men  who  had  personated  the  heroes  of 
Riitli  were  shot  or  executed,  and  Emmenegger 
was  summarily  hung. 

The  Peasants'  Revolt  had  hardly  been  sub- 
dued when  religious  differences  in  the  confed- 
eracy were  fanned  into  a  flame,  and  war  again 
burst  forth.  A  number  of  families  in  the  can- 
ton of  Schwyz  had  secretly  embraced  Protes- 
tantism, and  this  fact  having  transpired,  their 
lives  were  threatened  by  the  authorities,  and 
they  fled  for  safety  to  Zurich.  To  secure  their 
possessions  in  Schwyz,  they  begged  the  media- 
tion of  Zurich  magistrates,  and  by  the  govern- 
ment of  that  canton,  property  claims  against 
Schwyz  were  accordingly  advanced.  Schwyz 
responded  by  the  confiscation  of  everything 
belonging  to  the  fugitives,  and,  while  the  mag- 
istrates also  imprisoned  or  put  to  death  rela- 
tives of  the  thirty-six  families  who  had  fled, 
they  proclaimed  that  for  actions  within  their 
own  boundaries  they  would  render  account  only 
to  God  and  to  their  own  people. 

No  further  impulse  was  necessary  to  induce 
the  reformed  cantons  to  take  up  arms,  and 
ReUgious  Catholic  members  of  the  confederacy 
Antagonisms,  were  equally  prompt  in  preparation 
for  the  conflict.  The  campaign  was  chiefly 
characterized  by  deeds  of  pillage  and  plunder, 


Freedom  from  the  Empire        221 

and  among  the  troops  from  the  Reformed  can- 
tons so  little  discipline  existed,  that  a  Batueof 
force  of  twelve  thousand  Bernese,  sur-  vuimergen. 
prised  at  Villmergen  by  four  thousand  Luzern- 
ers,  was  thrown  into  confusion,  and  easily 
routed.  Shortly  after  the  attack,  orders  to 
avoid  a  conflict,  as  peace  negotiations  were  in 
progress,  were  delivered  to  the  commander  of 
the  Catholic  army.  Colonel  Pfyffer,  but  he  failed 
to  read  the  official  document  when  it  was  de- 
livered, and  pursuit  of  the  flying  enemy  was 
continued,  until  eight  hundred  of  their  number 
had  been  slain.  The  peace  then  consummated 
restored  to  individual  cantons  the  same  authority 
in  religious  matters  that  had  been  previously 
possessed,  and  secured  only  a  temporary  tran- 
quillity. A  violent  antagonism,  which  resisted 
diplomacy,  had  been  awakened  among  the  con- 
federates, and  slight  causes  of  dispute  insured 
a  renewal  of  hostilities. 

When  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
divided  the  nations  of  Europe  by  strong  par- 
tisanship, troops  from  Luzern  were  secured 
for  the  armies  of  Louis  XIV.  In  their  pas- 
sage through  Thurgau,  a  band  of  these  soldiers, 
entered,  with  drawn  swords,  a  Protestant  church 
in  Rapperswyl.  A  frightened  woman,  escaping 
from  the  building,  rushed  through  the  streets 


222  Annals  of  Switzerland 

and  into  a  neighboring  village,  shrieking  for 
help.  The  people  in  both  districts  seized  their 
arms,  and  five  Luzerners  were  killed.  When 
this  episode  was  reported,  the  Catholic  cantons 
called  out  their  troops,  and  demanded  from  the 
opposite  party  a  heavy  recompense.  In  Zurich, 
and  other  Protestant  cities,  collections  were 
taken  in  the  churches  to  defray  expenses  thus 
entailed;  but  all  propitiatory  meas- 
"SeUgiotis  ures  failed  where  so  wide  a  ground 
for  dispute  existed,  and  a  second  so- 
called  "  religious  war  "  was  soon  precipitated. 

In  territory  formerly  owned  by  the  Counts 
of  Toggenburg,  privileges  early  secured  to  the 
peasantry  had  been  greatly  curtailed  after  the 
purchase  of  the  land  by  the  Abbots  of  St.  Gall. 
These  ecclesiastics,  strengthened  by  alliances 

with  Schwyz  and  Claris,  ventured  to 

The  ■' 

Toggenburg  ignore,  by  degrees,  the  known  fran- 
chises of  their  people,  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  Abbot 
Leodegar,  claimed  absolute  lordship  upon  his 
estates.  His  oppressive  rule  at  last  induced 
the  peasants  to  carry  their  grievances  before  the 
Swiss  Diet;  and  soon  the  Toggenburg  question 
became  a  serious  one  in  the  cantons.  As  the 
population  of  the  district  included  both  Protes- 
tants and  Catholics,  partisanship  of  either  side 


Freedom  from  the  Empire        223 

was  largely  determined  by  religious  sympathy, 
while  the  recent  alliance  consummated  between 
Austria  and  the  Abbot  excited  against  the  latter 
a  strong  personal  prejudice. 

Perplexity  increased  as  the  prerogatives  on 
both  sides  were  discussed,  and  diet  after  diet 
assembled  and  adjourned  without  settling  the 
Toggenburg  question.  Finally  the  Emperor 
asserted  his  superior  right  to  decide  the  dis- 
pute, claiming  the  district  as  a  fief  of  the 
empire,  but  Zurich  and  Bern  repudiated  the 
imperial  claim,  asserting  that  the  territory  lay 
within  Swiss  boundaries,  and  power  to  arbi- 
trate for  the  people  rested  with  the  confeder- 
ates alone.  At  last  the  Toggenburgers  rose  in 
revolt  against  the  Abbot's  officials,  and  drove 
them  from  the  land.  Leodegar  sought  to  regain 
his  authority  by  force  of  arms,  but  succeeded 
only  in  eliciting  a  declaration  of  war  from  the 
peasantry,  who,  supported  in  the  action  by  Bern 
and  Zurich,  besieged  the  castle  of  the  Abbot, 
and  ravaged  the  district  of  St.  Gall.  Then  the 
Catholic  cantons  prepared  to  enter  the  field, 
and,  aided  by  gold  from  the  papal  nuncio,  and 
by  the  consecrated  bullets  and  amulets  freely 
distributed  among  their  men  they  assembled  a 
large  army,  while  princes  of  the  empire  were 
hastily  summoned  to  the  aid  of  the  exiled  Abbot. 


224  Annals  of  Switzerland 

To  support  Bern  and  Zurich,  other  Protestant 
cantons  sent  troops,  and  soon,  arrayed  in  hos- 
tile ranks,  stood  a  larger  number  of  confeder- 
ates than  had  ever  been  united  against  a  foreign 
foe.  Treachery  was  not  unknown,  and  in  the 
face  of  proposed  treaties  for  peace  surprises 

were  plotted.    After  a  series  of  minor 
Second  ^ 

Battle  of        encounters,   the  decisive    battle  oc- 

ViUmergen.  ,  •     ^i.     ^     ^ 

curred,  as  in  the  first  campaign,  near 
Villmergen.     The  two  armies,  almost  equal  in 
numbers,  contended  for  nearly  ten  hours  with 
fatal    bitterness.      Victory    for    the 
Catholics  seemed  insured,  when,  by  a 
manoeuvre  of  the  Protestant  general  —  Duval  — 
one  division  of  the  adverse  army  was  separated 
from  its  main  body,  and  the  position  of  the 
antagonists  was   swiftly   reversed.     Disastrous 
confusion  occurred  in  Catholic  ranks,  and  two 
thousand  corpses  covered  the  battlefield,  when, 
pressed    on    every   side,    they   were 
forced  to  sue  for  peace.     Both  par- 
ties  had   lost  valued    commanders,    and   both 
desired  a   final  cessation  of  hostilities,   when 
negotiations  were  opened  at  Aarau. 

By  the  terms  of  peace  accepted,  Protestant 
Peace  of  control  was  secured  in  Baden,  Thur- 
•^*^*''-  gau,     Sargans,    and    the    Rheinthal, 

but    only   slight    alleviation    of    burdens   was 


Freedom  from  the  Empire        225 

obtained  for  the  Toggenburg  peasants,  whose 
grievances  had  been  the  ostensible  cause  of  the 
war.  The  Abbot,  indeed,  remained  in  exile, 
refusing  to  recognize  the  terms  of  the  treaty; 
but  after  his  death,  in  1718,  the  territory  was 
restored  to  his  successor,  upon  condition  of  a 
grant  of  franchises  to  the  people.  The  Pope 
never  recognized  the  treaty,  although  compelled 
to  recall  the  nuncio,  who  had  been  a  leading 
instigator  of  the  disastrous  dissensions. 

The  moral  influence  of  the  war  upon  the 
people  of  Switzerland  was  deplorable.  The 
cantons,  separated  by  mutual  jealousies  and 
hatred,  sought  sympathy  and  support  in  foreign 
alliances.  Bern  entered  into  a  treaty  with 
England,  while  the  Catholics  were  promised 
aid  from  France  in  forcing  from  their  brother 
confederates  a  renunciation  of  lands  acquired 
in  the  religious  wars.  "  In  a  political  and 
social  light,"  writes  the  Swiss  historian, 
Daguet,  "  the  eighteenth  century  is  one  of  the 
saddest  in  our  history." 


15 


CHAPTER   XX 

PROGRESS  IN   POLITICAL    ENFRANCHISE- 
MENT 

1712-1796 

Although  for  nearly  a  century  succeeding  the 
Villmergen  wars,  the  Swiss  territory  remained 
nominally  undisturbed  by  domestic  or  foreign 
strife,  yet  religious  and  political  differences 
continued  to  separate  the  people.  Jealous  can- 
tonal governments,  suspicious  and  critical  of 
one  another,  justified  themselves  in  the  pursuit 
of  individual  prosperity,  regardless  of  the  effect 
upon  the  confederacy  at  large.  The  Diet  had 
avoided  entanglement  in  the  political  game  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  war,  but  rival  parties, 
in  various  cantons  advocated  respectively  the 
French  or  the  Austrian  claims,  and  rendered 
continually  imminent  volcanic  disturbances. 

France  had  assumed  proprietary  rights  in 
Switzerland,  since  the  consummation  of  the 
treaty  that  secured  her  an  annual  subsidy  of 
Swiss  troops,  and  in  return  for  her  payment  of 


Political  Enfranchisement  227 

gold  exacted  from  the  people  an  undeviating 
allegiance.^  If  this  was  not  voluntarily  ren- 
dered, efforts  were  made  to  enforce  it,  and  the 
French  ambassador  did  not  hesitate  to  use  vio- 
lent measures  for  the  accomplishment  of  his 
purpose.  An  instance  of  his  arbitrary  proceed- 
ings was  made  public  when  a  son  of  Thomas 
Massner,  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Chur,  was  kid- 
napped in  Geneva,  and  placed  under  strict 
confinement  because  his  father  had  expressed 
sympathy  for  Austria.  Massner  retaliated  by 
seizing  the  person  of  a  French  official  at  Chur, 
but  his  act  was  loudly  denounced  as  a  violation 
of  the  law  of  nations.  An  exchange  of  pris- 
oners having  been  arranged,  the  Frenchman 
was  set  at  liberty,  but  the  deluded  father  failed 
to  find  his  son.  He  then  plotted  a  more  sure 
revenge,  and  succeeded  in  capturing  the  Due 
de  Venddme,  grand-prior  of  France,  whom  he 
delivered  to  the  Austrians.  For  this  act  France 
demanded  from  the  government  of  the  Grisons 
an  indemnification,  and  efforts  to  negotiate  an 
exchange  of  prisoners  were  again  put  forth. 
These  proved  futile,  and,  to  pacify  the  French, 

1  "  Sire,"  said  Louvois  to  Louis  XIV., "  With  all  the  gold  the 
French  have  given  to  the  Swiss,  the  road  from  Paris  to  Basle 
might  be  well  paved  !  "  "Sire,"  responded  a  Swiss  officer  who 
was  present,  "  With  all  the  blood  shed  by  the  Swiss  for  the 
French,  a  canal  from  Basle  to  Paris  might  be  well  filled." 


228  Annals  of  Switzerland 

the  government  of  Grisons  was  obliged  to 
banish  Massner,  to  destroy  his  house,  and  to 
confiscate  his  property.  With  a  price  upon  his 
head,  the  fugitive  sought  refuge  in  Austria, 
and  when,  after  years  had  elapsed,  he  ventured 
to  re-enter  Switzerland  he  was  immediately 
claimed  by  the  French  ambassador,  and  again 
forced  to  seek  safety  in  a  foreign  land.  His 
life  ended  in  exile,  and  only  after  the  peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  had  closed  the  contest  between 
France  and  Austria  was  young  Massner  released 
from  captivity. 

In  the  large  cities  of  Switzerland  the  seven- 
teenth century  marked  the  growth  of  a  new 
aristocracy.  After  the  acquisition  by  Bern  of 
the  district  of  Vaud,  the  canton  abandoned  its 
antique  custom  of  burgher  assemblies,  and 
relegated  public  affairs  to  the  decisions  of  a 
Great  Council.  As  time  passed  on,  member- 
ship in  this  body  was  claimed  as  an  hereditary 
right  among  three  kundred  and  sixty  families 
of  the  city,  and  when  male  heirs  failed,  the 
office  was  frequently  bestowed,  as  a  marriage 
portion,  upon  daughters. 

Although  the  government  of  Bern  was  dis- 
tinguished for  its  probity  and  power,  an  effort 
to  establish  a  more  liberal  form  of  administra- 
tion  was  made  in   1742,    and  a    demand    was 


Political  Enfranchisement  229 

forwarded  to  the  council  for  prerogatives 
guaranteed  to  the  citizens  by  the  Charter  of 
Berchthold  of  Zeringen.  This  petition  the 
magistrates  elected  to  regard  as  an  act  of  in- 
subordination, and  the  twenty-six  burghers  who 
had  signed  it  were  summarily  arrested  or  ban- 
ished.    Samuel   Henzi,    one  of  the 

1749. 
exiled  men,  returned  to  Bern  at  the 

expiration  of  his  term  of  proscription,  and 
headed  there  a  band  of  malcontents,  who  were 
working  to  establish  burgher  authority.  The 
aim  of  the  leader  was  honestly  directed  at  the 
removal  of  abuses  in  the  govern-  Disturbances 
ment,  but  many  joined  him  whose  i°Bern. 
object  was  less  laudable,  and  Henzi  found 
himself  unable  to  stem  the  tide  of  criminal 
schemes  concocted  by  members  of  his  train. 
He  sought,  by  flight,  to  escape  responsibility 
for  deeds  he  disapproved ;  but  revelations  that 
caused  his  arrest  had  already  been  made  to  the 
government,  and,  as  leader  of  the  inculpated 
band,  Henzi  suffered  the  contumely  that  attached 
itself  to  the  most  revolting  of  their  projects. 
With  two  companions,  Werner  and  Fuetor,  he 
was  beheaded,  while  others,  less  prominent  in 
the  conspiracies,  were  banished.  The  council 
of  Bern,  aroused  by  these  events  to  a  realiza- 
tion of  danger,  proposed  a  free  discussion  of 


230  Annals  of  Switzerland 

state  affairs,  and  eventually  the  burgher  class 
in  that  city  gained  a  wider  influence. 

In  Freyburg,  as  in  Bern,  an  oligarchical  rule 
had  limited  the  freedom  of  early  years,  and  in 
iMmrrection  ^7^4  the  "secret  families  "  who  com- 
in Freyburg.  posed  the  council,  excluded  all  others 
from  entrance  into  their  coterie.  The  people 
vainly  recalled  the  days  of  old,  when  in  one 
district  alone  the  city  boasted  of  two  thousand 
tanners,  and  when  more  than  two  thousand 
pieces  of  cloth  were  annually  woven  for  expor- 
tation to  Venice.  In  vain  the  burghers  sought 
release  from  the  decrees  of  autocratic  magis- 
trates, and  at  last  an  embassy  of  sixty  men, 
under  Nicholas  Chenaux,  was  deputed  to  pre- 
sent complaints  before  the  council.  When  this 
measure  proved  ineffectual  to  procure  a  redress 
of  grievances,  adherents  from  the  adjacent 
country  were  notified,  and  three  thousand  insur- 
gents, bearing  consecrated  banners,  encamped 
before  the  city  walls. 

The  council  begged  aid  of  Bern,  and  troops 
from  that  city,  promptly  despatched,  led  the 
Freyburg  council  to  a  swift  victory.  Chenaux, 
fleeing  with  his  troops,  was  struck  down  by  a 
member  of  his  own  band  and  delivered  to  his 
pursuers,  who  mounted  his  head  upon  the  gate- 
way of  Freyburg.     Having  visited  with  severe 


Political  Enfranchisement  231 

punishment  all  known  to  be  implicated  in  the 
revolt,  the  government  then  invited  a  pre- 
sentation of  complaints  from  the  people; 
but  no  satisfactory  concessions  were  allowed 
when  delegates  from  various  districts  were  de- 
spatched to  Freyburg,  and  the  position  taken 
by  Bern,  Luzern,  and  Solothurn  dissipated 
all  hope  of  the  favorable  mediation  of  other 
cantons.  These  three  influential  states  de- 
clared themselves  prepared  to  maintain  the 
Constitution  of  Freyburg,  and,  although  recom- 
mending that  the  burdens  of  the  country  people 
should  be  lightened,  stigmatized  the  demands 
of  the  burgher  class  as  both  "groundless  and 
unconstitutional."  This  sentence  was  promul- 
gated from  the  pulpits,  and  terminated  all  pub- 
lic exhibition  of  dissatisfaction;  but  Chenaux 
was  regarded  as  a  martyr,  and  pilgrimages, 
which  the  government  was  powerless  to  pre- 
vent,  were  regularly  made  to  his  grave. 

In  the  small  territory  of  Geneva,  where  Vol- 
taire remarked  that  by  shaking  his  wig  he  pow- 
dered the  republic,  permanence  of  government 
had  been  secured  by  a  clause  in  the  constitution 
which  decreed  the  death  penalty  to  any  one  who 
should  suggest  a  modification  of  the  laws.  But 
as  increased  wealth  and  distinction  were  ac- 
quired by  the  citizens,  a  new  aristocracy  arose 


1^2  Annals  of  Switzerland 

who  revived   ancient    patrician    customs,    and 
claimed  exclusive  privileges.^ 

The  councils  of  Twenty-five  and  of  Two  Hun- 
dred were  largely  swayed  by  this  class,  and  in 
1717,  without  consulting  the  citizens  in  gen- 
eral assembly,  the  magistrates,  to  defray  the 
expenses  attending  repairs  upon  the  city  forti- 
fications, imposed  a  new  tax.  This  was  stren- 
uously opposed  by  the  burghers,  and  their  cause 
was  powerfully  espoused  by  Micheli  of  Crest, 
a  member  of  the  Great  Council.  For  his 
published  criticism  of  magisterial  ordinances, 
Micheli  was  deprived  of  his  position  in  the 
assembly,  and  threatened  with  imprisonment, 
and  although  he  sought  safety  in  flight,  he  was 
hung  in  effigy,  and  his  writings  were  torn  by 
Excitements  the  hangman.  But  opposition  was 
in  Geneva.  j^q^  overborne  by  these  ultra  meas- 
ures; the  citizens  continued  to  demand  the 
repeal  of  the  tax,  and  in  1734  the  council  called 
upon  Bern  for  aid  in  enforcing  their  unpopular 
decrees.  Then  a  mob  took  possession  of  the 
highway  by  which  the  Bernese  must  advance, 
and  convoked  there  a  general  council ;  but 
influence  was  exerted  which  secured  the  vote 

^  In  1697  a  decree  was  passed  in  the  council  "  d'empecher 
que  Ton  donne  aussi  facilement  le  titre  de  madame  aux  femmes 
de  toutes  conditions." 


Political  Enfranchisement         233 

of  a  majority  for  the  completion  of  the  fortifi- 
cations of  their  city,  and  the  consequent  impo- 
sition of  the  tax  for  ten  years,  and  upon  this  basis 
a  compromise  was  effected  and  temporary  peace 
secured.  But  the  volcanic  condition  of  the 
city  was  again  revealed  when  the  populace  de- 
manded the  banishment  of  the  syndic  Trembly, 
against  whom,  as  director  of  the  fortifications, 
hostile  sentiments  had  long  been  accumulat- 
ing. Again  the  burghers  took  up  arms,  and 
only  through  the  mediation  of  Bern, 
Zurich,  and  France,  was  tranquillity 
restored.  The  French  ambassador,  with  the 
assistance  of  delegates  from  the  two  cantons, 
then  undertook  to  prepare  a  new  constitution 
for  the  distracted  city.  By  its  decree  the 
power  of  the  aristocracy  and  the  authority  of 
the  smaller  councils  were  restricted,  and  a 
peace,  which  endured  for  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury, was  bequeathed  to  Geneva. 

In  1762,  a  native  of  Geneva,  though  long 
a  wanderer,  the  "man  in  convulsions,"  Jean 
Jacques  Rousseau,  had  so  excited  the  Parisian 
world  that  his  books  were  burned  by  the  hang- 
man. Geneva  imitated  the  example  of  the 
French,  and  refused  to  consider  the  remon- 
strances presented  by  a  number  of  her  citi- 
zens.    The  disputes,  thus  inaugurated,  served 


234  Annals  of  Switzerland 

as  sparks  to  kindle  fires  whose  fuel  had  long 
been  accumulating,  and  the  two  antagonistic 
parties  known  as  Representatives  and  Nega- 
tives held  riotous  meetings,  and  multiplied 
their  grounds  of  dispute  until  the  magistrates 
again  threatened  to  seek  foreign  intervention. 
This  method  of  arbitration  was  odious  to  both 
disputants,  and  to  prevent  its  adoption  they 
agreed  in  registering  an  act  of  pacification 
which  entitled  the  burghers  to  greater  authority 
than  they  had  formerly  possessed  in  minor  mat- 
ters of  legislation,  and  gave  them  power  to 
elect  one-half  the  members  of  the  Great  Coun- 
cil. But  the  aristocratic  party,  unwilling  to 
relinquish  their  perquisites,  endeavored,  during 
eight  years,  to  evade  the  fulfilment  of  their 
contract,  and,  intriguing  with  the  French, 
sought  from  that  government  support  in  their 
usurpations.  Plots  and  counterplots  overlapped 
one  another,  party  strife  waxed  hot  and  violent, 
and  at  last  the  intervention  of  the  former  arbi- 
ters was  requested.  Zurich  refused  her  aid  in 
the  crisis,  but  Bern,  Sardinia,  and  France 
stationed  troops  in  Geneva.  From  "Les  D6- 
lices,"  the  country-seat  of  Voltaire,  the  French 
battalions  pointed  their  guns  against  the  fair 
city,  while  the  arbiters,  sentencing  seven  mem- 
bers of  the  aristocracy  to  perpetual  banishment, 


Political   Enfranchisement         235 

established  the  authority  of  the  "Negatives," 
who  immediately  proscribed  "secret  societies, 
military  exercises,  and  recent  books." 

At  this  period,  in  close  proximity  to  the 
tumultuous  city,  the  cyclone  of  revolution  was 
sweeping  away  all  landmarks  of  ancient  usage, 
and  solving  political  problems  with  unauthor- 
ized legislation.  A  similarity  of  language  ren- 
dered the  dissemination  of  French  ideas  easy 
in  Geneva,  and  soon  peasants  of  the  surround- 
ing country  united  in  a  demand  for  the  annexa- 
tion of  their  territory  to  France.  Incited  by 
the  spirit  of  their  neighbors,  a  bolder  band 
organized  independent  tribunals,  and  by  such 
authority  banished  or  put  to  death  all  obnox- 
ious persons.  Anarchy  once  more  prevailed, 
but,  in  1794,  too  weary  of  the  long 

Cbflnglng 
confusion    for    further   conflict,    the  constitutions 
.  .  1      .     -1  .  • .    .  •  In  Geneva. 

Citizens  adopted  a  new  constitution, 
which  invested  syndics  and  councils  with  an 
authority  long  denied  them.  The  inaugura- 
tion of  this  form  of  government  was  officially 
announced  to  Bern  and  to  Zurich,  but  the 
magistrates  in  those  cantons  hesitated  to  give 
it  recognition,  and  their  doubts  of  its  perma- 
nence were  justified.  Again,  with  the  rise  of 
breadstuffs  and  other  commodities,  tumults 
occurred;    the  arsenals  were   seized,   and   the 


236  Annals  of  Switzerland 

magistrates  imprisoned.  Again,  by  the  failure 
of  both  parties  to  attain  their  objective  posi- 
tions, concessions  were  forced  from  antagonis- 
tic factions.  In  1796  another  constitution  was 
framed,  which  gave  to  all  persons  born  on 
Genevese  territory  equal  prerogatives,  and 
upon  this  basis  tranquillity  was  maintained 
for  two  years.  At  the  end  of  that  period  the 
fortunes  of  war  united  Geneva  to  France. 


CHAPTER   XXI 

THE  ERA   OF   THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 
1789-182O 

"We  are  Swiss!  and  the  Swiss  never  surren- 
der but  with  their  lives ! "  were  words  that  the 
world  heard,  even  through  the  clang  and  clamor 
of  demoniacal  Paris  in  1792,  for  they  were  a 
defiance  to  peril  and  to  death,  uttered  by  the 
leader  of  eight  hundred  heroic  men,  whose 
martyrdom  Luzern's  carved  rock  records. 

The  report  of  the  massacre  of  the  Tuileries 
guard  sent  through  Switzerland  a  prolonged 
quiver  of  that  political  earthquake,  that,  ad- 
vancing in  swift  waves,  had  already  shaken 
the  confederacy.  The  aggressive  tendency  of 
French  revolutionary  tribunals  was  keenly  real- 
ized in  the  cantons,  and  the  governments  hesi- 
tated to  offend  a  nation  who  were  disposed  to 
offer  only  a  Pandora-box  to  the  world  at  large; 
consequently,  the  Diet  was  prompt  in  the  recog- 
nition of  forms  of  legislation,  successively 
established  on  territory  adjacent  to  its  own. 


238  Annals  of  Switzerland 

But  in  the  midst  of  the  maelstrom  of  reaction 
from  established  constitutional  rule,  many  can- 
tonal governments  endeavored  to  preserve  their 
authority  by  an  increased  severity  of  adminis- 
tration, and  through  this  impolitic  course  pre- 
cipitated the  crisis  they  were  seeking  to 
avert. 

When  the  inhabitants  of  Staeffa,  on  the  shore 
of  Lake  Zurich,  manifested  an  inclination  to 
obtain  civil  enfranchisement,  the  village  was 
immediately  occupied  by  a  military  force,  and 
the  people  oppressed  by  heavy  fines.  The 
magistrates  of  Grisons  exercised  so  imperious 
and  rigorous  an  authority  over  the  Valtelina 
that  the  occupants  of  that  valley  sought  the 
interference  of  Napoleon  in  their  behalf.  His 
demand  that  the  district  should  be  admitted  as 
a  fourth  member  of  the  Grison  league  having 
been  disregarded,  the  autocrat  summarily  an- 
nexed it  to  the  newly-organized  Cisalpine 
Republic. 

Among  the  Vaudois,  a  people  little  disposed 
to  political  excitement,  the  temper  of  opposi- 
tion to  foreign  domination  had  been  induced 
and  stimulated  by  a  few  wealthy  men,  at 
whose  head  stood  the  refugee,  Francis  Caesar 
La  Harpe.  Antagonism  to  the  sway  of  Bern 
was  rapidly   developed,    and    when    Napoleon 


Era  of  the  French  Revolution     239 

traversed  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  on  his  way  to  the 
congress  of  Rastadt,  triumphal  arches  greeted 
him,  bearing  inscriptions  quoted  from  his  ver- 
dict in  the  Valtelina :  "  One  nation  cannot  be 
subject  to  another,  without  violation  of  the 
principles  of  national  and  of  public  rights." 

At  the  instigation  of  the  "  Helvetic  Club  " 
of  Paris,  French  troops  were  sent,  in  xhe  Lemanic 
1798,  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Geneva,  ««»«»»"«• 
and  a  transitory  result  was  the  establishment 
by  the  Vaudois  of  a  "Lemanic  Republic." 
Bern,  thus  despoiled  of  a  province,  was  divided 
into  two  political  parties :  one  led  by  Frederick 
Steiger,  "the last  great  man  of  ancient  Switzer- 
land," who  advocated  resistance  to  foreign  en- 
croachments, while  a  powerful  faction  under 
French  influence  insisted  upon  the  superior 
policy  of  peace-negotiations.  Meanwhile,  an 
army  was  advancing  from  Vaud,  under  General 
Brune,  and  troops  sent  to  oppose  its  progress 
fought  ineffectually,  or  fled  before  facing  the 
foe.  The  Diet,  which  had  assembled  in  alarm, 
separated  in  the  distraction  of  fear;  mutual 
distrust  of  one  another  had  been  too  long  fos- 
tered in  the  cantons,  and  no  united  effort  could 
now  be  anticipated.  Gradually  France  appro- 
priated districts  within  Swiss  boundaries,  and 
unceremoniously  assumed  the  right  to  dismem- 


240  Annals  of  Switzerland 

ber  the  confederacy.  On  the  advance  of 
French  troops,  Luzern,  Schaffhausen,  and 
Zurich  declared  their  dependencies  free,  and 
released  their  prisoners.  Bern  received  into 
her  aristocratic  council  fifty-two  representatives 
from  the  country,  and  Freyburg  agreed  to  make 
equal  concessions.  But  the  foreign  foe  pursued 
his  unimpeded  way,  and,  as  he  moved,  his  in- 
flexible grasp  covered  each  canton  in  turn, 
closing  upon  each  the  iron  door  that  stifled 
every  whisper  of  opposition.  Solothurn  and 
Freyburg  fell,  and  Bern  was  summoned  to  sur- 
render. The  city  magistrates  replied  by  arming 
twenty-five  hundred  troops  to  confront  fifteen 
hundred  of  the  enemy;  but  by  the  crafty  Brune 
the  superior  forces  were  beguiled  with  peace 
propositions  until  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  under 
Schauenburg,  had  joined  its  strength  to  his. 
Then  Bern,  surrounded  by  foes,  was  forced  to 
capitulate,  and  to  yield  to  the  invaders  all  her 
garnered  wealth.  While  French  soldiers,  pro- 
claiming themselves  liberators  of  the  people, 
Dissoitttion  pillaged  the  land,  the  French  Direc- 
Confederacy,  tory  declared:  "The  confederacy  is 
no  more ! "  and  arbitrarily  dissolving  the  union 
of  five  hundred  years,  inaugurated 
upon  the  territory  a  new  Helvetic 
Republic."     This  state,  "one  and  indivisible," 


Era  of  the  French  Revolution     241 

was  partitioned  into  nineteen  cantons,^  and  four 
deputies  from  each  received  power  to  exercise 
legislative  authority  in  a  Grand  The  Helvetic 
Council  and  a  Senate,  while  the  »ei«wic- 
central  executive  authority  was  vested  in  a 
Directory  of  five  members,  holding  its  seat  at 
Luzern. 

Neither  the  civil  nor  religious  liberties  for 
which  the  Swiss  had  contended  were  infringed 
by  the  new  constitution,  but  against  the  accept- 
ance of  any  ordinances  imposed  by  a  conqueror 
the  spirit  of  the  nation  rebelled.  The  three 
Waldstatten,  with  Zug,  Appenzell,  and  Glarus, 
recalling  their  ancient  traditions  and  the  deeds 
of  heroic  ancestors,  leagued  together  once  again 
to  resist  subjugation.  "  In  battle  and  in  blood," 
they  said,  "  our  fathers  won  the  glorious  jewel 
of  our  independence,  and  we  will  not  lose  it 
but  in  battle  and  in  blood. "  Led  by  the  valiant 
Aloys  Reding,  a  hero  descended  from  heroes, 
they  joined  in  solemn  oaths  of  fidelity  unto 
death,  and  marched  to  meet  the  intruding  army. 
Overpowered  in  two  encounters,  they  ^tti^  of 
rallied  for  the  third  at  Rosenthurm,  R<»entininii. 
near  the  field  of  Morgarten,  where  an  enemy 
four  times    their  numbers    confronted    them. 

1  A  name  then  officially  used  in  Switzerland  for  the  first 
time. 

16 


242  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Thrice  on  that  memorable  ground  the  foe  was 

repulsed,   but,  although  "every  Swiss  soldier 

fought  like  a  Caesar,"  the  little  band 

1798. 

of  patriots  was  finally  overpowered, 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  new  constitution 
was  forced  upon  each  district,  and  "the  first 
year  of  Swiss  slavery  "  opened. 

The  nation  was  not  blind  to  the  fact  that  its 
fall  had  been  due  to  the  indulgence  of  selfish 
greed  for  individual  cantonal  aggrandizement 
and  the  consequent  weakening  of  the  tie  that 
had  formerly  upheld  the  confederation;  but 
in  spite  of  this  conviction,  local  antagonisms 
continued  to  be  fostered,  and  no  efforts  were 
made  to  allay  the  spirit  of  discontent  fomented 
among  the  masses  by  the  new  division  of  land. 
When  oaths  of  allegiance  to  the  new  govern- 
ment were  required,  numerous  outbreaks  oc- 
curred, for  the  French  commissioners,  living  in 
luxury  and  extravagance  at  the  expense  of  the 
country,  regarded  neither  the  unpaid  salaries  of 
the  clergy,  nor  the  poverty  of  the  people,  and 
the  Executive  Directory,  established  at  Aarau, 
commanded  neither  confidence  nor  respect. 

The  ecclesiastics  of  Nidwalden,  anticipating 
the  abolition  of  the  monasteries,  declared  that 
the  new  constitution  was  the  work  of  Satan, 
and  quickly  excited  a  formidable  disturbance. 


Era  of  the  French  Revolution     243 

Led  by  a  Capuchin  monk,  named  Paul  Steiger, 
the  peasants  at  Stanz  offered  desperate  resist- 
ance to  the  French  troops;  but  after  a  conflict 
of  ten  hours  they  were  overcome,  and,  by  the 
merciless  punishment  that  followed,  nearly  four 
thousand  victims  perished  amid  their  burning 
homes. 

In  the  autumn  of  1798,  after  a  victory  over 
the  French  in  Swabia,  an  Austrian  army  entered 
Switzerland.  In  alarm  at  the  proximity  of  this 
foe,  the  Helvetic  government  quitted  Luzern, 
and  sought  security  at  Bern ;  but  French  troops 
soon  encountered  the  Austrian  force,  and  Swit- 
zerland again  became  a  theatre  of  foreign  war, 
while  in  both  antagonistic  armies  Swiss  soldiers 
were  enrolled,  to  oppose  their  brothers  in  a 
bitter  strife.  Swiftly  the  French  were  expelled 
from  Schwyz,  and  the  Austrians,  with  their 
Russian  allies,  advanced  toward  Zurich.  The 
Abbot  of  St.  Gall,  confidently  anticipating 
the  resumption  of  his  former  authority,  deprived 
his  people,  prematurely,  of  their  charter,  and 
forced  them  again  into  slavery.  But  Massena 
met  the  Russians,  and  the  tide  of  victory  turned ; 
the  French  entered  Zurich,  again  masters  of 
the  country,  while  Austrians  and  Russians  were 
in  full  retreat;  and  during  three  succeeding 
years  a  French  army,  quartered  upon  the  people, 


244  Annals  of  Switzerland 

reduced  them  to  a  condition  of  poverty  unknown 
before  in  their  history.  Powerless  in  this 
humiliation  to  resist  the  bayonets  of  their 
oppressors,  they  made  their  misery  manifest  by 
four  attempts  to  effect  changes  in  their  govern- 
ment ;  and  insurrectionists  insisted  upon  a  res- 
toration of  ancient  forms,  even  after  the  treaty 
of  Amiens  (1802)  had  withdrawn  foreign  garri- 
sons from  the  country.  The  unprotected  gov- 
ernment officials  fled  to  Lausanne,  and  a  Diet 
was  summoned  to  meet  in  Schwyz  for  the 
establishment  of  the  old  constitution. 

But  the  sovereign  power  of  France  was  yet 
dominant,  and  Napoleon  commanded  peace. 
His  ambassadors  arrived  at  Lausanne,  and 
immediately  the  malcontents  laid  down  their 
arms,  burgher  and  magistrate  bowing  silently 
before  the  messenger  of  the  First  Consul. 
In  an  address  to  the  Swiss,  through  General 
Rapp,  Napoleon  dwelt  upon  the  anarchy  that 
had  so  long  prevailed  among  them,  and  declared 
that  only  the  country's  desperate  need  induced 
him  to  retract  his  resolution  against  interfering 
in  its  affairs.  He  offered  to  mediate,  upon 
condition  that  within  five  days  three  deputies, 
accompanied  by  delegates  from  the  cantons, 
should  be  sent  to  Paris. 

"Every  rational  man,"  he  said,  "must  per- 


Era  of  the  French   Revolution     245 

ceive  that  my  mediation  is  a  blessing  conferred 
upon  Switzerland  by  that  Providence  which, 
amid  so  many  concurring  causes  of  social  dis- 
solution, has  always  preserved  your  national 
existence  and  independence.  It  would  be  pain- 
ful to  think  that  destiny  has  singled  out  this 
epoch,  which  has  called  to  life  so  many  new  re- 
publics, as  the  hour  of  destruction  to  one  of  the 
oldest  communities  in  Europe." 

The  Helvetic  senate  replied  in  a  spirit  of 
gratitude  and  submission;  cantonal  deputies 
were  immediately  chosen,  and  in  December, 
1803,  the  sixty-three  Swiss  delegates  in  Paris 
were  informed  by  letter  of  the  basis  upon  which 
Napoleon  would  consent  to  mediate  in  their 
behalf. 

The  "Act  of  Mediation,"  provided  for  the 
addition  to  the  thirteen  old  members  of  the 
confederation  of  six  new  cantons;  The  "Act  of 
two  of  these,  St.  Gall  and  Orisons,  Mediation." 
having  formerly  been  "associates,"  and  the 
remaining  four,  Aargau,  Ticino,  Thurgau,  and 
Vaud,  to  be  formed  from  subject  territory, 
which  had  been  at  various  periods  conquered. 
In  this  confederacy  of  nineteen  members,  a 
central  government,  resembling  the  old  Diet, 
but  with  functions  enlarged,  should  direct 
national  affairs  at  the  cities  of  Freyburg,  Bern, 


246  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Solothurn,  Basle,  Zurich,  and  Luzern,  in  annual 
rotation ;  each  canton,  during  the  period  of  its 
pre-eminence,  assuming  the  name  of  Vorort, 
or  directorial  canton,  while  the  burgomaster  of 
the  distinguished  city  became  president  of  the 
confederation  with  the  title  of  "  Landammann 
of  Switzerland."  Independent  cantonal  sover- 
eignty was  to  be  restored,  directed  in  Demo- 
cratic districts  by  Landesgemeinden,  and  in 
other  cantons  by  "  great "  and  "  small "  coun- 
cils, but  no  exclusive  privileges,  either  for 
families  or  cities,  would  be  tolerated.  Free- 
dom in  trade,  and  license  to  establish  himself 
according  to  his  pleasure,  should  be  the  pre- 
rogative of  every  inhabitant  of  the  land,  and 
full  liberty  of  worship  was  granted  to  Protes- 
tants and  Catholics  alike. 

In  this  document,  which  also  stated  the  pro- 
visions of  a  close  alliance  with   France,   the 
name   "Switzerland,"    was    for    the 

name  of 

"Switzer-      first  time  officially  employed.     The 

land  " 

prescribed  conditions  were  accepted 
by  the  deputies  at  Paris,  and,  the  dissolution  of 
the  Helvetic  government  having  been  formally 
proclaimed,  French  troops  were  withdrawn  from 
Swiss  territory.  Allegiance  to  the  new  order 
of  things  was  promptly  tendered,  except  in  the 
canton  of  Zurich,  where,  on  the  ground  of  diffi- 


Era  of  the  French  Revolution     247 

culties  concerning  the  redemption  of  titles, 
ground-rents,  etc.,  the  officials  authorized  to 
demand  the  oath  of  acceptance,  met  resistance. 
But  the  opposition  was  speedily  quelled,  and 
six  years  of  tranquillity  followed.  A  stronger 
sense  of  fellowship  had  been  promoted  by  the 
common  trials  through  which  the  cantons  had 
passed,  and  enterprises  of  mutual  advantage 
were  projected.  In  1807  the  great  work  was 
proposed  of  draining  twenty-eight  thousand 
acres  of  annually-inundated  swamp-land,  and 
within  a  few  years  an  unhealthy  valley  was 
converted  into  an  attractive  and  habitable  dis- 
trict, while  the  water  there  accumulated  formed 
the  navigable  channel  of  the  great  xheLinth 
Linth  Canal.  Meanwhile,  schools  were  ^^"^' 
multiplied;  industrial  and  commercial  pursuits, 
untrammelled,  prospered;  each  canton  sent 
cheerfully  its  contingent  to  guard  the  frontier, 
while  the  Diet  declared  its  unanimous  resolu- 
tion, by  the  maintenance  of  a  strict  neutrality  in 
European  disputes,  to  preserve  the  tranquillity 
of  the  land. 

In  1806  Napoleon  gave  Neuchdtel  to  his 
general,  Berthier,  and  in  18 10  the  Swiss  were 
again  made  to  feel  the  authority  of  the  capri- 
cious autocrat,  for,  on  the  plea  that  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Simplon  was  essential  to  France 


248  Annals  of  Switzerland 

and  to  Italy,  a  decree  was  issued,  incorporat- 
ing the  Valais  with  the  French  empire,  and, 
although  the  Diet  protested  against  this  rob- 
bery, they  were  powerless  to  resist  it.  Their 
contract  to  furnish  France  with  an  uninter- 
rupted contingent  of  sixteen  thousand  troops 
had,  through  the  constant  warfare  of  Napoleon, 
become  an  agreement  burdensome  beyond  toler- 
ation. In  1807,  the  promised  number  being 
incomplete,  a  conscription  was  ordered  by  the 
Emperor,  and  to  avoid  this  measure  the  can- 
tons took  the  desperate  course  of  emptying  the 
prisons  to  fill  up  the  regiments. 

When  the  star  of  the  great  commander  sank 
in  "the  battle  of  the  nations,"  at  Leipsic,  the 
hour  seemed  to  have  struck  for  the 
re-establishment  of  Swiss  mdepen- 
dence;  but,  ignoring  the  pledged  neutrality  of 
the  country,  the  allied  sovereigns,  en  route  for 
Paris,  attempted  to  traverse  Switzerland  with 
their  victorious  armies.  Suddenly,  from  the 
Diet,  an  edict  was  promulgated  which  with- 
drew home  troops  from  the  Rhine  frontier,  and 
allowed  the  allies  unimpeded  passage.  In 
many  cities  the  wealthy  classes  welcomed  the 
presence  of  the  foreigners,  anticipating  from 
them  support  in  efforts  to  re-establish  the  old 
system  of  aristocratic  sovereignty  and  peasant 


Era  of  the  French  Revolution     249 

servitude.  Bern,  Solothurn,  Freyburg,  and 
Luzern  declared  the  "Act  of  Mediation  "  an- 
nulled, and  claimed  their  former  dominion  over 
adjacent  districts.  Zurich  headed  an  opposi- 
tion to  this  assumption  of  authority,  and  in 
various  localities  tumults,  which  the  local 
authorities  were  impotent  to  suppress,  became 
of  such  frequent  occurrence  that  the  "Long 
Diet "  continued  at  Zurich,  seemed  the  only  tie 
to  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  the  nation. 

Meanwhile  the  allied  sovereigns  had  entered 
Paris;  Napoleon  was  at  Elba,  and  the  con- 
gress assembled  at  Vienna  began  its  congress  of 
peace  deliberations.  Ambassadors  Vienna, 
from  Switzerland  were  despatched  to  this  as- 
sembly, where  an  intention  to  guarantee  the 
perpetual  neutrality  of  Swiss  territory  was  an- 
nounced ;  but,  before  the  pledge  could  be  ful- 
filled, the  tramp  of  armies  and  the  roar  of 
artillery  once  more  aroused  the  world,  for 
Napoleon  had  returned,  and  again  monarchs 
trembled. 

This  interlude  was  a  brief  one ;  the  day  of 
Waterloo  came  and  passed  (June  18,  181 5),  and 
the  reassembled  Congress  of  Vienna,  recogniz- 
ing the  new  act  of  confederation  adopted  by 
a  majority  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  agreed  to  rec- 
ompense the  confederacy  for  districts  detached 


250  Annals  of  Switzerland 

from  their  territory  by  the  new  divisions  of 
Europe,  excepting  only  Chiavenna,  Valtelina, 
and  Bormio,  which,  though  claimed  by  the 
Grisons,  had  been  annexed  to  Austria. 

The  entrance  of  the  allies  had  delivered 
Geneva,  Valais,  and  Neuchatel  from  French 
domination,  and,  by  vote  of  the  "  Long  Diet "  of 
1 8 14,  they  were  joined  with  the  Swiss  Confed- 
eration. In  1707,  Neuchatel,  to  escape  the 
grasp  of  Louis  XIV.,  had  voluntarily  placed 
itself  under  the  ducal  sway  of  Prussia,  and  now 
appeared  both  as  a  Swiss  canton,  and  a  Hohen- 
zollern  principality.  Napoleon  had  restored 
Ticino  to  the  Swiss,  and  twenty-two  cantons 
formed  the  nation  whose  deputies  to  the  Con- 
The  Federal  gress  solemnly  presented  a  Federal 
Pact  of  181S.  Pact,  formulated  in  the  Diet  at  Zurich. 
Its  terms  were  accepted  by  the  allies,  and,  by 
the  stipulations  of  the  Peace  of  Paris,  the 
future  inviolability  of  Swiss  territory  was 
guaranteed. 

The  Federal  Pact  of  181 5  formed  the  sixth 

constitution  given  to  the  Swiss  nation   since 

the  formation  of  the  confederacy  in 

Nov.  20,  I8I5. 

1 291.  As  a  fundamental  principle, 
the  pact  declared  that  no  community  could 
hold  any  subject-district ;  no  form  of  vassalage 
should  be  allowed.    The  Diet  was  to  meet,  hence- 


Era  of  the  French  Revolution     251 

forth,  by  turn,  at  Bern,  Zurich,  and  Luzern. 
One  vote  in  this  assembly  was  apportioned  to 
each  canton,  and  the  sovereign  right  of  each 
state  in  its  own  territory  was  distinctly  recog- 
nized. 

Freed  from  the  distractions  of  continental 
warfare,  the  people  willingly  relegated  to  their 
deputies  the  settlement  of  all  minor  questions, 
either  of  Church  or  of  State,  and  from  181 5  to 
1820  no  political  movement  of  importance  dis- 
turbed the  tranquillity  of  the  land.  Social  and 
intellectual  pursuits  prospered,  cantons  vied 
with  one  another  in  enthusiasm  for  educational 
advantages ;  steamboats  appeared  upon  the  lakes 
of  Geneva,  Neuchcltel,  and  Constance;  within 
Swiss  boundaries  new  philanthropic  schemes 
were  liberally  sustained,  while  cordial  aid  was 
extended  to  the  Greeks,  whose  struggle  to  free 
themselves  from  the  Turkish  sovereignty  ex- 
cited a  sympathetic  interest  throughout  Switzer- 
land. 


CHAPTER   XXII 

THE   LEAGUE   OF   ROTHEN 
1830-1847 

The  political  life  of  Switzerland,  like  that  of 
other  European  nations,  was  struck  into  rapid 
vibration  by  the  shock  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion of  1830,  and  once  again  the  masses  rose  to 
combat  the  power  of  the  aristocracy.  Again 
the  prizes  to  be  obtained  were  revised  consti- 
tutions, with  broader  definitions  of  popular 
rights,  and  within  a  few  months  twelve  cantons 
modified  their  laws,  some  peaceably,  others 
after  fierce  contentions. 

Throughout  this  revolutionary  period  in  can- 
tonal governments,  the  federal  constitution  of 
the  Swiss  remained  unaltered;  but  in  1832, 
in  response  to  increasing  evidence  of  popular 
desire,  the  Diet  empowered  a  committee  of 
fifteen  to  formulate  a  new  covenant.  In  honor 
of  the  delegate  from  Geneva,  who  held  the 
position  of  secretary  to  this  commission,  the 


The  League  of  Rothen  2^2 

document  prepared  was  entitled  the  Rossi  Pact. 
It  was  strongly  supported   in  many  xheRoad 
districts,    but    failed    of   acceptance  ^*'^*- 
through   the  opposition  of  a  few  cantons,  led 
by  Luzern. 

During  the  period  of  universal  agitation 
attending  the  discussion  of  this  subject,  the 
canton  of  Basle  had  been  immersed  in  civil 
strife.  The  refusal  of  magistrates  to  grant  to 
the  country  people  a  representation  proportional 
to  their  numbers,  led  to  hostilities  which  cul- 
minated in  bloodshed.  The  city  of  Basle  then 
united  with  the  smaller  cantons  of  Switzerland 
in  a  league  known  as  the  Sarnen-  xhe 
bund,  which  was  organized  for  the  sarnenbimd. 
purpose  of  presenting  a  united  opposition  to 
all  radical  tendencies.  The  rejection  of  the 
Rossi  Pact  encouraged  the  members  of  this 
league  to  open  hostilities  against  liberal  gov- 
ernments, and  its  first  measure  was  the  expul- 
sion from  cantonal  union,  by  a  legislative  vote, 
of  forty-two  antagonistic  communes,  while  six- 
teen hundred  troops  were  put  into  the  field  to 
suppress  opposition.  The  Vorort  of  the  con- 
federacy protested  against  these  measures,  but 
her  troops,  sent  as  mediators,  were  refused 
admission  into  the  city  of  Basle.  Then  the 
seven  large  cantons  formed  the  league  of  the 


254  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Siebnerbund,  and  offered  opposition,  while 
the  Diet  ordered  sixteen  thousand  troops  to 
xhe  occupy  the  canton  of  Basle.     Despite 

sieunertund.  thg  attempted  intervention  of  foreign 
ambassadors,  the  dissolution  of  the  Sarnenbund 
was  decreed,  and  Basle  was  divided  into  the 
two  half  cantons  of  Basel-Stadt,  and  Basel- 
Landschaft.  Each  division  was  privileged  to 
send  one  deputy  to  the  Diet,  but  each  was 
entitled  to  only  half  a  vote;  hence,  in  case  of 
opposition  between  the  districts,  the  influence 
of  the  canton  was  annulled.  In  Neuchatel,  at 
this  period,  two  parties,  equally  opposed  to 
their  double  regime,  endeavored  on  the  one 
hand  to  achieve  a  severance  from  Prussia,  and 
on  the  other  a  separation  from  Switzerland. 
The  former  counted  upon  the  sympathy  of  the 
Swiss  Diet;  but  that  authority,  recognizing  the 
claims  of  their  early  compact,  sent  troops  to 
support  the  existing  government,  and  the  at- 
tempted revolution  failed. 

In  1 8 17,  Switzerland  had  entered  the  "Holy 
Alliance,"  organized  by  Alexander  of  Russia 
for  the  maintenance  of  political  and  religious 
toleration;  but  the  friendly  reception  now 
offered  by  the  cantons  to  foreign  refugees  gave 
offence  to  arbitrary  potentates,  and  called  forth 
many   remonstrances.      In    1833   five   hundred 


The  League  of  Rothen  255 

Poles,  who  had  secretly  procured  arms  at 
Geneva,  attempted  an  invasion  of  Savoy  from 
Swiss  territory,  and,  although  the  episode  was 
barren  of  result,  Sardinia,  Austria,  and  some 
members  of  the  Rhine  Confederation  were 
induced  to  enter  formal  complaints  against  the 
Confederate  government,  and  to  demand  the 
expulsion  from  their  domain  of  all  wwictdties 
disturbers  of  European  peace.  Dis-  ^^^r^"^***" 
putes  over  these  exactions,  and  minor  »»«>*«• 
matters,  resulted  in  a  temporary  interruption 
of  friendly  intercourse  with  Germany;  but  in 
1835,  upon  the  accession  of  Ferdinand  I.  to 
the  throne  of  Austria,  a  reconciliation  was 
effected. 

A  more  serious  exigency  for  the  Confederacy 
arose  from  a  demand  enforced  in  the  name  of 
M.  Thiers,  then  premier  of  France,  for  the 
expulsion  from  Switzerland  of  a  refugee  named 
Conseil,  who  was  stigmatized  as  a  dangerous 
agitator. 

When  this  requirement  had  been  conceded,  it 
was  discovered  that  the  supposititious  refugee 
was  in  reality  a  spy  sent  into  Switzerland 
by  the  French  government.  The  indignation 
naturally  expressed  throughout  the  cantons  was 
met  by  angry  menaces  from  the  Duke  of  Monte- 
bello,  the  French  ambassador,  and  serious  con- 


256  Annals  of  Switzerland 

sequences  were  averted  only  through  skilful 
diplomacy. 

The  hazards  of  this  affair  were  followed  by 
other  complications  consequent  upon  the  pro- 
longed residence  of  Louis  Napoleon  upon  Swiss 
territory.  Hortense  Beauharnais  had  sought 
there  an  asylum,  and  her  son  became  a  natural- 
ized citizen  of  Thurgau,  serving  as  captain  in 
the  federal  army.  In  1837  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  gain  the  allegiance  of  the  French 
nation  drew  down  upon  the  young  man  a  sen- 
tence of  exile  that  carried  him  to  America. 
Upon  his  reappearance  in  Thurgau,  France 
demanded  his  expulsion,  but  the  Thurgau 
deputy  claimed  that  as  a  citizen  of  that  canton 
the  prince-presumptive  could  insist  upon  pro- 
tection so  long  as  he  remained  inoffensive. 
The  Diet,  divided  in  opinion,  submitted  the 
question  to  the  cantons,  but  France,  impatient 
of  this  leisurely  proceeding,  despatched  twenty- 
five  hundred  men  against  the  Swiss,  who  were 
characterized  in  her  angry  proclamation  as 
"turbulent  neighbors." 

This  language  roused  the  Swiss  to  a  fierce 
antagonism.  Geneva  and  Vaud  flew  to  arms; 
the  French  border  was  guarded  by  defiant  and 
enthusiastic  forces^  while  one  by  one  the  can- 
tons voted  to  resist  the  demands  of  France,  and 


The  League  of  Rothen  257 

to  maintain  the  right  of  their  nation  to  inde- 
pendent judgment  upon  the  point  in  dispute. 
But  the  Prince  Napoleon,  unwilling  to  com- 
promise the  country  so  long  his  asylum,  sent  a 
letter  to  the  Diet,  announcing  his  voluntary 
departure  from  the  land,  and  France,  with  pro- 
testations of  friendship  toward  Switzerland, 
called  home  her  troops. 

The  decree  of  1835,  which  ordained  public 
sessions  of  the  Diet,  was  a  measure  abetting 
the  advance  of  popular  freedom,  and  it  had  also 
tended  to  induce  co-operation  among  the  can- 
tons, for  the  promotion  of  education, 
military  discipline,  and  other  matters 
of  common  advantage;  but  with  the  cessation 
of  foreign  disagreements,  internal  jealousies 
revived,  and  these  were  soon  augmented  by 
religious  disputes. 

At  the  close  of  the  Reformation,  seven  can- 
tons remained  in  communion  with  the  Roman 
Church,  namely,  Luzern,  Schwyz,  Uri,  Unter- 
walden,  Zug,  Freyburg,  and  Solothurn;  five 
were  avowedly  Protestant  —  Bern,  Basle,  Zurich, 
St.  Gall,  and  Schaffhausen ;  while  Religions 
the  remaining  cantons  recognized  divisions, 
both  forms  of  worship.  In  the  Helvetic  Repub- 
lic ( 1 798-1 803)  the  exercise  of  either  faith  had 
been  permitted,  and  the  Act  of  Mediation (1803) 
17 


258  Annals  of  Switzerland 

stipulated  for  liberty  of  choice  in  religious 
creeds;  but  the  pact  of  181 5  took  no  cognizance 
of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  except  in  the  article 
guaranteeing  convents  and  chapters. 

Rome  had  never  ceased  her  efforts  to  regain 
a  universal  domination  in  Switzerland,  and  in 
1814,  when  a  papal  nuncio  resumed  his  seat  in 
Luzern,  the  spirit  of  freedom  alone  saved  the 
people  from  the  superstitious  subjugation  to 
which  their  ancestors  had  yielded.  In  the 
midst  of  the  political  turmoil  of  1838-40  the 
Catholic  party  sought  to  establish  a  national 
archbishopric  in  Switzerland,  and  thus  to 
secure  to  their  faith  a  dominating  influence; 
but  the  project  was  condemned  by  the  Pope, 
although  not  until  the  excitement  it  induced 
had  necessitated  an  exact  definition  of  the  limit 
of  clerical  interference  in  State  affairs.  On 
this  point  disputes  waxed  violent.  A  decree 
of  the  great  council,  ordaining  national  super- 
vision of  cantonal  monasteries,  called  forth  open 
remonstrances  from  the  abbey  of  Muri.  The 
magistrates  of  Schwyz  ignored  a  law  forbidding 
the  admission  of  Jesuits,  but  stimulated  thereby 
many  local  animosities;  while  in  Glarus,  the 
decision  of  the  Landesgemeinde,  denying  Cath- 
olic clergy  an  equality  of  privileges  with  those 
of   Protestant   persuasion,    was   rejected   by  a 


The  League  of  Rothen  259 

minority  in  the  council,  who,  in  opposition  to 
advisers  in  Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden, 
refused  the  oath  to  their  new  constitution. 

In  1839,  Zurich  became  Vorort  of  the  Con- 
federacy, and  the  Diet  was  in  session  when 
Frederick  Strauss  accepted  the  invitation  to 
the  chair  of  theology  in  the  university  of  that 
city,  pre-eminent  for  culture.  Strauss,  who 
had  been  educated  for  the  Church,  had  advanced 
from  the  position  of  a  country  pastor  to  the 
chair  of  a  professor  at  Maulbrom,  and  the  dis- 
tinction of  lecturer  at  Tubingen.  In  1835  he 
attained  notoriety  by  the  publication  of  a  "  Life 
of  Jesus,"  in  which  he  attempted  to  show  that 
the  Gospel  narratives  were  only  a  collection  of 
myths,  gathered  by  early  communities.  The 
book  cost  Strauss  his  professorship  at  Tubin- 
gen, and  he  retired  to  private  literary  life,  until 
called  by  the  Zurich  Board  of  Education  to  the 
theological  chair  in  their  university.  In  the 
storm  of  opposition  that  prevented  his  occupa- 
tion of  this  position,  the  government  withdrew 
its  indorsement  of  the  invitation,  but  failed 
by  the  concession  to  quell  the  excitement.  A 
"  committee  of  faith  "  demanded  ecclesiastical 
control  in  educational  affairs,  and  when  the 
magistrates  charged  this  band  with  seditious 
acts,  ten  thousand  men  assembled  at  Kloten 


i6o  Annals  of  Switzerland 

and  voted  for  open  resistance  to  the  govern- 
ment. A  rumor  that  troops  from  other  cantons 
had  been  summoned  to  aid  the  authorities  of 
Zurich  precipitated  a  conflict,  and  messengers 
hurried  through  the  country  calling  upon  the 
people  to  rise  in  defence  of  their  religion. 
Led  by  the  pastor,  Bernard  Huzel,  a  motley 
mob  of  fanatics,  in  disorderly  array,  and  armed 

with  clubs,  scythes,  or  any  weapons 
confucts  in    they  could  secure,   marched   to   the 

gates  of  Zurich,  chanting  psalms  on 
their  way.  Against  slight  opposition  they 
forced  an  entrance  into  the  city,  but  in  the 
cathedral  square  a  force  of  armed  men  was  en- 
countered, with  whom  shots  were  exchanged. 
At  this  juncture  intelligence  arrived  that  the 
radical  magistrates  had  abdicated,  and  the 
defenders  of  the  city  at  once  withdrew  oppo- 
sition. Burgomaster  Hess  and  other  officials 
united  with  the  insurgents,  a  conservative  gov- 
ernment took  the  seats  of  the  recent  rulers,  the 
committee  of  faith  called  upon  the  people  to 
recognize  the  victory  vouchsafed  to  the  just 
cause,  and  for  several  days  Zurich  was  given 
up  to  a  celebration  in  which  religious  services 
mingled  with  excited  carousals. 

The  re-election  of  local  officials  served  to 
propagate   the   temper  of    intolerance,    which 


The  League  of  Rothen  261 

spread  into  other  cantons,  and  impelled  similar 
outbreaks,  though  less  signal  results 

®  °  Religions 

attended  them.  In  the  canton  of  conflicts  in 
Aargau  a  grand  council  of  two  hun-  ^*°' 
dred  members  had,  until  1840,  represented, 
equally  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  interests. 
The  election  of  delegates  without  reference  to 
creed  caused,  in  1841,  a  numerical  advantage 
on  the  Protestant  side,  and  Augustine  Keller, 
deputy  from  Aargau  proposed,  before  the  Diet, 
the  abolition  of  religious  houses,  which  he 
characterized  as  "hearthstones  of  strife."  In 
defence  of  these  objects  of  their  veneration, 
two  thousand  peasants  took  up  arms  at  Villmer- 
gen,  but,  at  the  hands  of  government  troops, 
suffered  an  overwhelming  defeat.  The  elec- 
tions of  1842  showed  a  majority  in  sympathy 
with  the  views  of  Keller,  and  the  suppression 
of  convents  in  Aargau  followed;  but  in  1843 
Luzern  became  Vorori,  and  the  preponderat- 
ing influence  in  the  confederacy  swung  to  the 
Catholic  side. 

The  guaranteed  pact  of  1 8 1 5  was  quoted,  and 
the  State  council  of  Luzern  issued  a  mandate 
annulling  all  sales  of  convent  property.  In  the 
midst  of  a  wide-spread  tumult  a  special  meet- 
ing of  the  Diet  was  summoned,  but,  sustained 
by  the  Bernese  government,  Aargau  refused  to 


262  Annals  of  Switzerland 

revoke  her  decree,  claiming  that  the  welfare  of 
the  canton  was  impaired,  and  even  its  exist- 
ence imperilled,  by  the  condemned  institutions. 
After  long  debate,  a  compromise  was  agreed 
upon,  and  the  re-establishment  of  a  few  con- 
vents in  Aargau  produced  temporary  quiet; 
although  the  ejected  abbots  continued  to  pre- 
sent annually  before  the  Diet  their  unrecog- 
nized claims. 

A  radical  government  had  early  been  estab- 
lished in  Luzern,  but  civil  strife  was  propagated 

through  the  influence  of  a  fanatical 
Joseph  Leu's 
Insurrection    peasant,  named  Joseph  Leu,  who  pro- 

uzem.  posed  a  withdrawal  from  the  league 
of  the  confederacy,  and  the  inauguration  of  a 
new  state,  in  which  the  supreme  guidance  of 
educational  matters  should  be  committed  to 
the  Jesuits.  Before  the  excited  populace  the 
city  magistrates  were  almost  powerless;  a  draft 
of  the  proposed  constitution  was  submitted  to 
the  Pope,  and,  receiving  from  that  potentate  a 
politic  expression  of  his  faith  in  their  good  in- 
tentions, the  revolutionists  worked  on ;  liberty- 
trees  were  planted  in  cities  and  villages,  State 
councils  fled,  and  the  triumph  of  the  Catholic 
cause  was  manifested  by  the  unresisted  promul- 
gation of  new  laws  by  new  magistrates.  In 
1845  Joseph  Leu  was  assassinated,  and,  although 


The  League  of  Rothen  263 

the  murderer  expiated  his  crime  upon  the 
scaffold,  the  entire  party  of  Leu's  opponents 
were  held  responsible  for  the  deed;  and,  while 
the  peasant  was  exalted  as  a  saint  and  martyr, 
and  pilgrimages  were  made  to  his  grave,  perse- 
cution and  imprisonment  was  the  vengeance 
visited  by  the  magistrates  upon  many  innocent 
heads. 

One  step  followed  another,  each  wider  in 
result,  and  increasingly  antagonistic  to  the 
Btind  of  the  confederacy,  until,  at  Rothen, 
in  September,  1843,  Luzern  united  with  the 
other  Catholic  cantons  in  a  secret  defensive 
and  offensive  alliance.  Consummated  osten- 
sibly for  the  maintenance  of  the  pact  of  181 5, 
this  League  of  Rothen  ripened  into  the  Sonder- 
bund  of  1846,  a  conspiracy  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  Catholic  supremacy  throughout 
Switzerland. 

Meanwhile,  in  the  district  of  Valais,  the 
people  had  been  quietly  subservient  to  their 
priesthood;  or,  if  aroused  to  emulate  the  liberal 
progress  of  their  neighbors,  had  encountered  a 
prompt  opposition  that  quenched  the  Mattirtance* 
spirit  of  freedom.  But  gradually  de-  *»  Calais, 
mands  became  more  importunate,  and  local  dis- 
putes worked  toward  a  crisis  in  civil  affairs. 
Since  18 14  the  six  German  districts  of  High 


264  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Valais  had  been  entitled  to  send  twenty-four 
deputies  to  the  Valaisian  diet,  while  the  seven 
communes  of  Low  Valais,  with  a  population 
almost  double  that  of  High  Valais,  were  allowed 
only  twenty-eight  representatives.  Low  Valais 
claimed  a  right  to  representation  proportional 
to  population;  High  Valais  asserted  an  ancient 
right  to  superiority  of  representation,  and  voted 
for  separation  rather  than  the  relinquishment  of 
these  prerogatives.  An  attempted  intervention 
by  the  Swiss  Diet  proved  fruitless.  Low  Valais 
gained  by  force  of  arms  an  equality  of  privi- 
leges, and  in  1840  established  her  constitution 
upon  that  basis.  But,  encouraged  by  the  clergy, 
who  feared  a  loss  of  influence  through  the  prog- 
ress of  liberal  pinciples,  members  of  the  old 
council  awaited  an  opportunity  to  regain  author- 
ity. The  party  of  "Old  Switzerland"  opposed 
the  newly-formed  society  of  "  Young  Switzer- 
land,"—  an  organization  hostile  to  priestly 
power,  and  whose  members  were  declared  by 
the  clergy  to  be  ineligible  to  Church  privileges. 
The  enmity  between  the  two  parties  grew  more 
pronounced,  and  in  the  elections  of  1843  bribes 
were  so  freely  distributed  that  the  bounds  of 
toleration  were  overpassed.  On  their  way  to 
the  polls  a  band  of  "  Young  Swiss  "  attacked 
the  printing-office  of  a  paper  circulated  in  the 


The  League  of  Rothen  265 

interests  of  the  clergy,  while  the  council  called 
out  troops,  and  summoned  confederate  aid.  At 
the  bridge  of  Trient  a  force  of  "Old  Swiss," 
in  ambush,  attacked  a  detachment  of  liberals, 
and  after  a  desperate  conflict,  in  which  thirty 
"  Young  Swiss  "  were  slain,  the  remainder  of 
their  band  were  forced  to  fly.  The  occupation 
of  Lower  Valais  by  the  victors  followed,  and  a 
constitution  was  established  which  secured  the 
priests  in  all  their  monopolies,  gave  the  super- 
intendence of  educational  affairs  to  the  Jesuits, 
and  refused  liberty  of  worship.  Valais,  it 
declared,  must  first  be  Catholic,  then  Swiss. 

Intelligence  of  these  events  excited  fierce 
indignation  against  the  Jesuits,  and  in  Aargau 
a  great  council  voted  for  the  expulsion  of  the 
order  from  Switzerland.  The  proposition  was 
not  intentionally  hostile  to  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion, but  was  regarded  as  a  necessary  precau- 
tion against  undue  influence  of  the  priests  in 
civil  affairs.  When,  however,  the  Aargau 
deputy  presented  the  measure  before  the  Diet, 
he  found  support  from  the  Basle  representative 
alone,  while  the  deputy  from  Valais  was  per- 
mitted to  resume  his  seat  in  the  council,  and 
his  vindication  of  the  action  of  his  canton 
received  but  slight  criticism.  The  influence  of 
the  "  Society  of  Jesus  "  was  wide  in  the  land. 


266  Annals  of  Switzerland 

and  when  the  press  too  openly  revealed  the 
subterfuges  practised  by  that  order,  its  freedom 
of  criticism  was  checked  by  legal  procedures. 
But  in  Vaud,  when  magistrates,  subject  to  this 
Free  Corps  priestly  domination,  refused  a  demand 
Expedition,  presented  by  the  people  for  the  expul- 
sion of  Jesuits  from  their  canton,  citizens  and 
militia  united  against  the  ruling  authorities, 
and  without  damage  to  person  or  property  estab- 
lished a  provisional  government  with  a  liberal 
constitution,  although  the  hostile  disposition 
of  forty  clergymen  was  manifested  by  their 
refusal  to  read  the  proclamation  of  the  new 
magistrates. 

Meanwhile,  in  Luzern,  the  grand  council 
voted  in  favor  of  intrusting  public  education 
to  Jesuit  supervision,  prohibiting  the  circula- 
tion of  newspapers  from  liberal  cantons,  and 
persecuting  all  who  were  suspected  of  hold- 
ing opinions  opposed  to  the  Catholic  policy. 
Encouraged  by  the  fall  of  the  Vaudois  govern- 
ment, some  Luzerners  —  exiled  since  the  era 
of  Leu's  influence  —  organized,  with  their  par- 
tisans from  neighboring  cantons,  an  expedition 
against  the  city.  A  motley  troop,  known  as  the 
Free  Corps,  under  command  of  Dr.  Steiger,  a 
former  physician  of  Luzern,  and  Ulrich  Ochsen- 
bein  of  Nidau,  occupied,  without  difficulty,  the 


The  League  of  Rothen  267 

height  of  the  Giitsch,  from  which  point  it  was 
proposed  to  open  a  cannonade  upon  the  city. 
But  indecision  among  the  leaders  caused  a 
delay  that  proved  disastrous  to  their  projects. 
General  Sonnenberg  advanced  against  them 
with  trained  troops.  In  a  disorderly  conflict 
the  Free  Corps  suffered  defeat,  and  the  num- 
ber of  prisoners  carried  to  Luzern  filled  the 
prisons  and  overflowed  into  the  churches.  The 
city  magistrates  refused  to  accept  ransom  for 
their  captives,  rejected  the  intervention  of  the 
Vorort  of  the  confederacy,  and  declared  their 
resolution  to  eradicate  within  their  domain 
every  tendency  to  opposition. 

Suddenly  the  veil  of  secrecy  that,  since  1843, 
had  enshrouded  the  league  of  Rothen  was 
swept  aside ;  and  the  alliance  of  the  xhe  sonder- 
Sonderbund  was  revealed.  In  1846  *""*• 
the  seven  cantons  who  had  during  three  years 
been  secretly  joined  in  the  league  of  Rothen 
declared  that  in  this  union  they  should  oppose 
the  strength  of  the  other  confederates,  until  the 
re-establishment  of  the  Aargau  convents  was 
decreed  by  the  Diet,  the  question  of  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Jesuits  dropped,  and  all  modifica- 
tions of  the  federal  pact  renounced. 

"We   maintain,"  said  these  cantons,   "that 
our  league   is  not  at  variance  with  the  pro- 


268  Annals  of  Switzerland 

visions  of  our  confederate  pact;  it  is  purely 
defensive,  and  has  been  rendered  necessary  by 
aggressions  on  the  part  of  other  cantons.  We 
intend  no  evil  to  others  if  they  do  not  attack 
us,  and  we  shall  maintain  our  league  as  long  as 
our  own  security  seems  to  require." 

Hitherto  the  relation  of  the  confederated 
cantons  had  been  that  of  states  bound  by  com- 
mon loyalty  to  the  articles  of  their  constitu- 
tion. Now,  seven  Catholic  cantons  —  Luzern, 
Schwyz,  Uri,  Unterwalden,  Zug,  Freyburg, 
and  Appenzell-Rhodes-Interieure  —  maintained 
the  doctrine  that  each  canton  was  at  liberty  to 
interpret  for  itself  the  terms  of  the  federal  pact. 
To  meet  the  emergency  created  by  a  conspiracy 
which  threatened  the  dissolution  of  the  con- 
federacy, a  meeting  of  the  Diet  at  Bern  was 
ordered,  and  the  cantons  were  notified  to  send 
deputies  with  special  instructions  for  the  fore- 
shadowed crisis.  Three  measures  were  pro- 
posed; the  formal  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits:  the 
forcible  dissolution  of  the  Sonderbund,  or  a  re- 
modelled constitution  whose  articles  should  be 
in  accord  with  the  demands  of  the  epoch. 

Opposed  to  the  seven  Catholic  cantons  stood 
Zurich,  Bern,  Glarus,  Schaffhausen,  Orisons, 
Aargau,  Thurgau,  Ticino,  Basel-Landschaft, 
and  Outer- Appenzell.    But  as  Basel-Landschaft 


The  League  of  Rothen  269 

was  opposed  by  Basel-Stadt,  and  Outer-Appen- 
zell  by  Appenzell-Int^rieure,  the  votes  of  these 
two  cantons  were  rendered  nugatory.  Geneva's 
deputy  showed  open  partiality  for  the  Sonder- 
bund  party,  and  even  suggested  the  appointment 
of  a  committee  to  supervise  the  proceedings  at 
Bern.  In  1841,  a  political  party,  xhCTiiird 
known  as  the  "Third  of  March,"  of  March." 
had  effected  radical  changes  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  Geneva,  and  under  their  direction  the 
management  of  cantonal  affairs  devolved  upon  a 
constituent  council.  At  this  epoch  the  decision 
of  that  body  was  favorable  to  the  proposition 
of  their  deputy,  and  tremendous  excitement 
resulted. 

The  liberal  party  declared  null  and  void 
these  decisions  of  their  magistrates,  the  can- 
tonal troops  were  repulsed  by  armed  citizens; 
the  ruling  officers  were  speedily  forced  to  resign 
their  positions,  and  a  new  provisional  govern- 
ment, under  the  leadership  of  James  Fazy,  was 
inaugurated,  which  elected  a  new  deputy  to  the 
Diet,  and  gave  the  eleventh  vote,  in  favor  of 
armed  dissolution  of  the  Sonderbund. 

Meanwhile,  in  the  Reformed  districts  of  the 
canton  of  Freyburg,  a  minority  in  opposition 
to  the  council,  entered  an  urgent  demand  for 
withdrawal   from   the    Sonderbund,    and   when 


270  Annals  of  Switzerland 

this  met  refusal  endeavored  to  effect  their  pur- 
pose by  force.  But  their  efforts  were  rendered 
fruitless  by  failure  in  discipline  as  well  as  by 
weakness  in  number,  and  Freyburg  remained 
enrolled  among  the  Sonderbund  cantons. 

In  the  elections  of  1847  the  canton  of  St. 
Gall  arrived  at  a  closely-contested  point.  Two 
parties  in  that  district  had  for  many  years  se- 
cured an  equal  constituency,  and  seventy-five 
radical  deputies  had  opposed  the  same  number 
of  conservatives.  But  at  this  juncture  the  dis- 
trict of  Gaster,  hitherto  conservative,  chose 
liberal  representatives,  and  the  twelfth  vote 
against  the  Sonderbund  was  secured. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

THE   SONDERBUND   WAR 

1847 

Under  the  pretence  of  threatened  danger  from 
members  of  the  Free  Corps,  Luzern  collected 
military  stores,  while  all  the  Sonderbund  can- 
tons fortified  their  frontiers  and  prepared  for  a 
conflict.  Encouraged  by  the  sanction  extended 
by  the  cabinets  of  Vienna  and  Paris,  the  League 
anticipated  easy  victory  and  the  speedy  estab- 
lishment of  Jesuit  authority. 

At  this  crisis  the  meeting  of  the  Diet  was  a 
momentous  event.  Its  proceedings  were  watched 
with  breathless  interest,  and,  during  a  few  days 
of  heated  debate,  anxiety  throughout  Switzerland 
grew  intense.  But  on  the  20th  of  July,  from 
Bern,  the  Vorort  of  the  confederacy,  the  decree 
went  forth:  "The  Sonderbund  must  be  dis- 
solved ! "  and  immediate  imperative  messages 
commanded  all  rebellious  cantons  to  desist 
from  offensive  proceedings. 

At  the  suggestion  of  Geneva's  new  deputy, 
the  name  of  all  staff-officers  who  refused  imme- 


272  Annals  of  Switzerland 

diate  recognition  of  the  authority  of  this  decree 
were  stricken  from  the  roll  of  the  confederacy, 
and  the  Diet  then  moved  an  adjournment  to 
await  the  effect  of  its  first  mandate. 

On  the  3d  of  September  the  representatives 
reassembled  at  Bern  for  the  purpose  of  discuss- 
ing the  postponed  questions  relating 
DietatBern.         ^,       ^^    .  ,7  r       , 

to  the  Jesuits,  and  by  vote  of  a  large 
majority  decreed  the  expulsion  of  the  order 
from  Switzerland.  The  same  Diet  ordained  a 
revision  of  the  federal  pact,  and,  before  adjourn- 
ment, appointed  for  the  execution  of  that  im- 
portant commission  a  committee  of  fourteen 
distinguished  members. 

The  portent  of  tremendous  events  shadowed 
the  land,  and  excitement  was  intense,  although 
suppressed.  The  great  council  of  Zurich,  an- 
nouncing its  unalterable  resolution  to  support 
the  decisions  of  the  Diet,  exerted  a  widely  dis- 
seminated influence.  Quietly  in  the  liberal 
cantons  the  councils  assembled;  quietly,  but 
with  firmness,  their  final  decrees  were  uttered. 
In  St.  Gall,  temporary  disturbances  were 
wrought  by  priestly  interference,  but  liberal 
principles  came  forth  triumphant,  and  the 
canton  joined  its  loyal  associates. 

In  Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden,  tumult- 
uous  assemblies   proclaimed   a  disposition   to 


The  Sonderbund  War  273 

support  the  Sonderbund  League,  and  threat- 
ened loss  of  life  or  property  to  all  who  offered 
opposition.  In  Valais  and  Freyburg,  similar 
measures  were  pursued.  Zug  wavered,  but  in 
Luzern  only  seven  members  of  the  council 
advised  measures  loyal  to  the  Swiss  Confed- 
eracy. After  a  recess  of  eight  weeks  the  Diet 
reassembled  on  the  i8th  of  October.  The 
seven  representatives  of  the  Sonderbund  can- 
tons remained  obstinately  hostile,  and  refused 
either  to  dissolve  their  separate  alliance,  or  to 
expel  the  Jesuits  from  their  territory.  The 
loyal  cantons  opposed  an  open  warfare,  if  any 
compromise  consonant  with  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  confederacy  could  be  effected, 
and  in  a  proclamation  addressed  to  the  rebel- 
lious cantons  the  Diet  declared:  — 

"  The  rights  and  the  freedom  inherited  from 
your  fathers  shall  continue  unaltered,  your  faith 
untouched.  The  Diet  desire  no  oppression  of 
their  confederate  brothers,  no  nullifying  of 
cantonal  sovereignty,  no  forced  change  in  the 
present  confederate  compact.  But  the  exist- 
ence of  a  separate  league,  endangering  the 
welfare  of  the  whole,  can  never  be  allowed. 
Dissolve  it  while  yet  there  is  time." 

When  this  manifesto  failed  to  elicit  any 
response  save  that  of  resolute  antagonism,  and 
18 


274  Annals  of  Switzerland 

mediation   attempted  by  the  cantons  of  Zug, 

Grisons,  and  Basel-Stadt  proved  fruit- 
CivU  War. 

less,  war  was  inevitable,  and  the  Diet 

issued  orders  for  the  assembling  of  troops,  over 
whom  Henry  Dufour  of  Geneva  was  appointed 
chief-in-command.  By  the  Sonderbund  this 
measure  was  characterized  as  a  commence- 
ment of  hostilities,  and,  casting  upon  the  Diet 
the  responsibility  for  all  consequences,  their 
deputies  on  the  29th  of  October  quitted  Bern. 
The  remaining  delegates  to  the  assembly  con- 
tinued in  session,  and  on  the  4th  of  November 
publicly  proclaimed  a  resolution  to  dissolve  the 
Sonderbund  by  force  of  arms,  while  an  army 
under  excellent  discipline  hastened  to  complete 
its  preparations  for  war.  The  Sonderbunders, 
whose  aggressive  measures  had  been  pre- 
arranged, were  enthusiastically  eager  for  battle. 
Fanatical  zeal  among  them  had  been  stimulated 
by  the  influence  of  a  papal  nuncio,  and  Jesuit 
chaplains,  who  blessed  their  banners,  distrib- 
uted protective  amulets,  and  promised  to  their 
cause  the  blessing  of  the  Virgin.  On  the  day  of 
the  Diet's  proclamation  of  war,  hostilities  were 
opened  by  Sonderbund  troops,  one  detachment 
passing  over  the  St.  Gothard  into  Ticino,  while 
another  band  surprised  an  unprotected  village  in 
Aargau,  and  carried  forty  prisoners  to  Luzem. 


The  Sonderbund  War  275 

Dufour  made  no  haste  to  retaliate,  although 
resolute  in  his  determination  utterly  to  subju- 
gate the  rebellious  cantons.  The  controlling 
temper  of  the  commander-in-chief  was  mani- 
fested in  his  charge  to  the  assembled  army.  "  I 
place  under  your  protection  children,  women,  old 
men,  and  the  ministers  of  the  Church.  Come 
from  this  conflict  victorious,  but  without  stain." 

An  attack  upon  Freyburg  was  Dufour's  first 
hostile  exploit,  and  at  that  place  an  easy  con- 
quest was  attained.  The  colonel  of  capture  of 
the  Sonderbund  troops,  finding  his  J^^y^"**"?- 
city  surrounded  by  the  enemy,  resigned  his 
command,  and  the  demoralized  council  gave 
immediate  orders  for  the  capitulation  of  the 
garrison. 

This  swift  success  secured  the  liberation  of 
many  prisoners,  the  termination  of  Jesuit  influ- 
ence in  Freyburg,  and  the  establishment  of  a 
liberal  government  in  that  city. 

Meantime,  a  second  division  of  the  national 
army  had  directed  its  strength  against  Luzern 
and  the  forest  cantons.  Zug,  thus  threatened, 
hastily  withdrew  from  the  Sonderbund,  and 
welcomed  the  loyal  troops.  At  the  Batues  of  the 
Rothenburg  and  Meyers-Kappel  the  Sfwey^- 
hostile  armies  met,  and  fought  val-  Karoei- 
iantly   until   victory   rested   with   the   confed- 


276  Annals  of  Switzerland 

erates.  At  Gislikon  the  advance  of  victori- 
Bftttieof  ous  divisions,  under  Egloff,  Hausler, 
GisUkon.  Einsberg,  Benziger,  and  Moef,  was 
fiercely  disputed  by  the  riflemen  of  Unter- 
walden,  during  a  conflict  enduring  ten  hours. 
The  artillery  of  Solothurn  was  forced  to  re- 
treat, but  at  that  crisis  a  sudden  and  des- 
perate charge  of  the  Bernese  compelled  the 
Sonderbund  troops  to  abandon  their  fortifica- 
tions, and  decided  the  contest.  A  general 
flight  toward  Luzern  ensued,  and  on  the  fol- 
lowing day  the  council  of  that  city  sent  envoys 
to  negotiate  with  Dufour,  although,  in  a  des- 
perate hope  of  continuing  the  contest,  some 
Sonderbund  leaders  fled  over  the  lake  to 
Altorf. 

Dufour  insisted  upon  the  unconditional  sur- 
render of  Luzern,  and  after  that  event  (Novem- 
ber 25th)  the  submission  of  the  minor  can- 
Surrender  oj  tons  was  inevitable.  Unterwalden, 
Lozem.  Schwyz,  and  Uri   soon   capitulated, 

while  the  men  prominent  in  the  Sonderbund 
sought  final  asylum  in  Valais,  there  to  await 
the  promised  intervention  of  France  on  their 
behalf.  But  Valais,  their  ultimate  refuge,  sur- 
rendered on  the  28th  of  November;  and  at  the 
end  of  twenty-five  days  the  war  was  ended,  the 
Sonderbund  dissolved. 


The  Sonderbund  War  277 

In  the  cities  of  Freyburg  and  Luzern  pro- 
visional governments  restored  the  constitutions 
of  1830;  Uri,  for  the  first  time  since  her 
heroic  era,  was  provided  with  a  written  consti- 
tution. Extensive  reforms  were  undertaken  in 
Valais,  Zug,  and  Unterwalden,  and  the  Jesuits, 
pursued  by  an  edict  of  perpetual  banishment, 
fled  precipitately  from  the  country.  Neuchdtel 
and  Inner  Appenzell,  having  refused  to  assist 
in  the  war,  were  compelled  to  pay  a  heavy  fine 
to  the  confederacy,  while  the  Sonderbund  can- 
tons were  held  responsible  for  debts  contracted 
in  consequence  of  their  rebellion.  The  assess- 
ment for  these  debts  could  be  secured  only  by 
armed  occupation  of  the  land,  and,  pressed  by 
this  contingency,  the  monks  of  St.  Bernard, 
emigrated  to  Sardinia. 

In  the  canton  of  Luzern  many  convents  were 
suppressed,  and  their  revenues  employed  for  the 
benefit  of  the  State,  wherein  serious  financial 
embarrassment  had  been  occasioned  through 
the  embezzlement  of  public  funds  by  members 
of  the  old  government. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  while  many 
prominent  European  nations  were  swift  in 
sending  congratulations  to  the  Swiss  Diet, 
Austria,  standing  aloof,  offered  asylum  to  the 
Jesuits   and  the  exiled   Sonderbunders,   while 


278  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Rome  loaded  the  victorious  Swiss  with  re- 
proaches, and  the  ambassador  Montalembert, 
recalled  to  France,  displayed  there  his  elo- 
quence in  denunciations  of  the  conquerors.  It 
soon  became  evident  that  the  purpose  of  the 
Swiss  cantons  to  unite  in  a  new  and  more  inti- 
mate bond  of  federal  union  would  encounter 
opposition  from  neighboring  powers.  Cabinets 
that  had  guaranteed  the  pact  of  181 5  claimed 
that  the  dissolution  of  that  agreement  was 
impossible  without  their  formal  consent,  and 
messages  of  remonstrance  or  of  menace  were 
frequently  received  by  the  deputies  assembled 
to  frame  the  new  constitution. 

The  Swiss  Diet  asserted  its  dignity  in  the 
brief  response,  "  A  free  people  must  frame  its 
own  laws ;  we  are  vassals  of  no  foreign  power. " 

Soon  after  the  termination  of  the  Sonderbund 
war,  the  spirit  of  insurrection  in  France  again 
rose  to  the  surface;  Louis  Philippe  was  driven 
from  his  throne,  and  the  swiftly-spreading 
impetus  of  the  revolution  caused  neighboring 
governments  to  totter.  But  Switzerland  main- 
tained her  equipoise  upon  the  basis  of  federal 
freedom,  although  her  borders  were  not  un- 
affected by  the  storms  without.  The  people  of 
Neuch^tel,  with  a  determination  to  free  them- 
selves from  the  compound  rule  of  Prussian  and 


The  Sonderbund  War  279 

cantonal  oflficials,  and  to  become  wholly  Swiss, 
summoned  their  state-council  to  abdicate. 
Upon  the  refusal  of  the  magistrates  Revointi<m  in 
to  comply  with  this  demand,  a  call  i^euchatei. 
to  arms  was  sounded,  a  formidably  enthusiastic 
company  stormed  the  council-hall ;  in  place  of 
the  Prussian  eagle  the  white  cross  of  the 
Swiss  Confederation  was  erected,  and  all  sug- 
gestions of  compromise  were  vehemently  re- 
jected. Defensive  operations,  undertaken  by 
troops  of  the  government,  showed  so  little  zeal 
for  the  cause  that  the  members  of  the  council 
deemed  it  prudent  to  resign,  with  reservation 
of  the  royal  rights.  The  republican  army  then 
secured  possession  of  the  city,  and  announced 
the  termination  of  princely  rule  and  the  organi- 
zation of  a  provisional  government.  Recogni- 
tion was  received  from  Bern,  then  Vorort  of  the 
Swiss  Confederation,  and  to  the  remonstrances 
of  the  Prussian  envoy.  Von  Sydow,  the  confed- 
eracy made  reply :  — 

**  Switzerland  acknowledges  no  covenant  with 
any  prince  of  Neuchatel.  The  canton  entered 
our  confederacy  equal  in  rights  to  all  others, 
and  when  she  changes  her  government  to  suit 
herself  we  cannot  oppose  her. " 

Although  thus  supporting  Neuchitel,  the  Diet 
of    1849   refused   the   solicitations   of   Charles 


28o  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Albert  of  Sardinia,  to  cement  with  him  an 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  against  Austria. 
A  few  Swiss  joined  the  army  of  Lombardy,  but 
the  majority  of  the  nation  declared  their  in- 
tention to  remain  neutral,  although  tempted  to 
take  part  in  the  war  by  a  widespread  sympathy 
with  the  cause  of  Italian  liberty.  When  fugi- 
tives, driven  by  Austrian  victories  into  Grisons 
and  Ticino,  strove  to  kindle  sparks  of  warfare 
in  those  districts,  the  Swiss  government,  guided 
by  Ochsenbein  and  Munzinger,  secured  the  ad- 
miration of  its  contemporaries  by  a  dignified 
maintenance  of  neutrality  throughout  many  per- 
plexing complications. 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

THE  CONSTITUTIONS   OF   1848  AND   1874 

The  rampant  spirit  of  war  did  not  divert  the 
Swiss  Diet  from  the  purpose  of  elaborating  new 
articles  of  confederation,  and  April  8,  1848,  a 
task  was  completed  which  gave  to  the  cantons 
the  first  federal  constitution  compiled  without 
foreign  interference.  The  political  divisions 
recognized  were  those  of  the  twenty-two  can- 
tons named  in  the  pact  of  181 5;  and  while  each 
of  these  was  endowed  with  a  wide  liberty  within  '*' 

its  own  borders,  the  new  pact  united  all  by  a 
stronger  central  tie  than  any  previous  terms  of 
confederation  had  forged. 

Modelled  in  some  measure  upon  the  consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  of  America,  the 
new  central  government  was  vested  xhe  central 
in  a  Federal  Assembly,  to  which  Govenunent. 
individual  cantons  yielded  a  portion  of  the 
authority  they  had  hitherto  claimed.  This 
Federal  Assembly  was  divided  into  two  legisla- 
tive chambers, —  the  National  Council  {National 


282  Annals  of  Switzerland 

Rath)  and  the  Council  of  States  {Stdnde  Rath), 
To  the  first  of  these,  every  Swiss  over  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  was  eligible,  the  successful 
The  national  candidate  entering  office  through  an 
Coundi.  election  by  ballot,  for  a  term  of  three 
years.  Each  canton  was  entitled  to  elect  one 
deputy  for  every  twenty  thousand  of  popula- 
tion. 

The  Council  of  States  consisted  of  two  dep- 
TheCouncu  uties  from  each  canton,  who  were 
of  states.  nominated  by  the  magistrates  of 
their  states. 

The  Federal  Assembly  nominated  the  seven 
members  of  a  Federal  Council  or  Executive 
{Bundesrath),  which  was  separated  into  depart- 
ments, and  presided  over  by  the  President  of 
the  Confederation. 

The  chief  officer  of  the  confederacy  was  to 
be  chosen  from  the  members  of  the  Federal 
Council,  and  was  subject  to  an  annual  election. 
Bern,  on  account  of  its  position  between  the 
French  and  German  speaking  districts,  was 
chosen  as  the  seat  of  the  central  government. 
Liberty  of  the  press  was  established,  all  denom- 
inations of  Christians  within  the  community 
were  guaranteed  freedom  of  worship;  but  the 
Jesuits,  with  allied  religious  orders,  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  land.     German,   French,    and 


Constitutions  of  1848  and   1874    283 

Italian  were  recognized  as  national  languages, 

and  were  severally  used  in  the  pub- 
Languages, 
lished  proclamations  of  the  Assem- 
bly's decrees,  and  in  the  announcement  of  their 
votes;  but  Italian  members  of  the  Executive 
were  supposed  to  understand  either  French  or 
German,   and  speeches  were  to  be  translated 
into  those  tongues  only. 

On  the  17th  of  June,  1848,  the  new  constitu- 
tion was  completed.  It  was  promptly  accepted 
by  thirteen  and  a  half  cantons,  and  with  little 
delay  by  all  except  Schwyz,  Uri,  and  Zug. 
During  the  summer  the  sanction  of  these  states 
was  also  rendered,  and  on  the  12th  of  Septem- 
ber, with  pealing  of  bells  and  blazing  of  moun- 
tain fires,  the  most  perfect  union  in  Swiss 
annals  was  inaugurated. 

Upon  a  few  points,  where  cantonal  or  federal 
authority  had  failed  of  satisfactory  readjust- 
ment, subsequent  legislation  slightly  modified 
the  constitution  of  1848;  but  for  a  considerable 
period  affairs  of  internal  interest  absorbed  the 
public  attention,  and  important  results  were 
exhibited  in  an  improved  monetary  system, 
and  a  uniform  scale  of  weights  and  measures 

(1851). 

In  1852  the  King  of  Prussia  declared  his 
intention   to  resume  authority  in  Neuchitel; 


284  Annals  of  Switzerland 

but  three  thousand  royalists,  who  gathered  at 
Vilangen  to  support  his  cause,  found  their 
schemes  frustrated  by  the  union  of  seven  thou- 
sand republicans.  In  1856,  a  conspiracy,  formed 
by  the  royalists,  to  arrest  the  state-council  at 
Neuchatel,  was  successfully  carried  into  execu- 
tion, but  the  deed  met  swift  revenge,  and  over 
six  hundred  prisoners  were  secured  by  the 
republicans,  who,  retaining  but  twenty-eight 
ringleaders  for  trial  as  insurgents,  allowed  the 
remainder  to  return  to  their  homes.  Frederick 
William  IV.  of  Prussia  demanded  the  release 
of  the  prisoners,  and  upon  the  refusal  to  grant 
this  behest,  threatened  war;  but  French  media- 
tion was  proffered,  and  Louis  Napoleon  prom- 
ised freedom  to  the  captives.  The  Federal 
government  refused  to  permit  their  liberation, 
Freedom  of  without  a  guarantee  of  the  freedom 
Henchatei,  ^f  Neuchatel,  and  upon  this  point 
the  dispute  waxed  so  bitter,  that  in  1857  thirty 
thousand  men  were  stationed  along  the  Swiss 
frontier,  under  command  of  the  veteran 
Dufour. 

Napoleon's  tactics  then  became  more  con- 
ciliatory, the  Federal  government  accepted  his 
intervention,  the  prisoners  were  released,  and 
a  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris  by  which  the  King 
of  Prussia,  though  retaining  the  title  of  "  Prince 


Constitutions  of  1848  and  1874    285 

of  Neuchatel,"  renounced  all  claim  to  rule  over 
the  territory. 

During  the  period  of  the  Austro-Italian  wars, 
the  neutrality  of  its  southern  frontier  was  jeal- 
ously guarded  by  the  Swiss  government,  and 
serious  entanglements  were  thus  avoided, 
although  some  embarrassing  complications  oc- 
curred. The  city  of  Perouse,  refusing  to  receive 
a  papal  garrison,  was  taken  by  Swiss  soldiers 
serving  in  the  papal  army.  The  Federal  Coun- 
cil, in  order  utterly  to  repudiate  responsibility 
for  this  and  similar  entanglements,  decreed  that 
Swiss  regiments  serving  in  Italy  should  not 
carry  their  national  ensign.  The  promulga- 
tion of  this  ordinance  in  Naples,  provoked  in- 
subordination among  the  Swiss  troops,  which 
increased,  until,  by  command  of  the  King,  their 
regiments  were  disbanded.  Although  some 
soldiers  enrolled  themselves  under  new  com- 
manders, many  returned  home,  where  the  enact- 
ment of  rigorous  laws,  greatly  restricted,  thence- 
forth, the  foreign  military  service. 

In  i860,  France,  long  covetous  of  Savoy, 
secured  from  Victor  Emmanuel  the  cession  of 
that  district  and  of  Nice,  sacrificing  thereby 
the  favor  of  the  Swiss;  but  in  1862  the  restitu- 
tion to  Vaud  of  the  valley  of  Dappes,  which 
had  been  seized  by  Napoleon  I.,  proved  a  con- 


286  Annals  of  Switzerland 

ciliatory  measure,  and  in  1864  a  commercial 
treaty  of  signal  advantage  to  Switzerland  was 
consummated  with  the  French  nation. 

In  Geneva  a  new  era  of  prosperity  was  inaug- 
urated under  the  liberal  government  of  Fazy. 
Fazy  in  The  city  was  extended  by  the  removal 

Geneva.  Qf    qJ^j    ramparts,    and    the    Roman 

Catholics  were  granted  protection  in  the  exer- 
cise of  their  faith.  Varying  political  interests 
provoked  animosities  during  the  election  period 
of  1864,  and  strife  in  the  city  forced  the  Fed- 
eral government  to  a  military  occupation  of  the 
canton  and  the  arrest  of  leaders  from  antago- 
nistic factions.  But  in  1869,  in  peace  and  har- 
mony, the  city  made  glad  holiday,  and,  by  the 
erection  of  a  noble  statue  on  the  border  of  the 
lake,  celebrated  the  anniversary  of  its  union 
with  the  Swiss  Confederacy. 

At  a  convention  held  in  Geneva  in  1864,  dep- 
uties from  the  chief  nations  of  Europe  chose 
Switzerland  to  be  the  centre  of  various  inter- 
national unions  subsequently  consummated. 
The  establishment  at  Bern,  in  1865,  of  the 
International  Telegraph  Office  was  swiftly  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  the  Postal  Union,  and  other 
partnerships  for  the  protection  and  promotion 
of  industrial,  literary,  and  artistic  enterprises. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Franco-Prussian 


Constitutions  of  1848  and  1874    287 

war  (1870),  the  Federal  Council,  anticipating 
violation  of  Switzerland's  neutrality,  by  armies 
of  the  antagonistic  nations,  ordered  out  troops 
for  frontier  duty.  The  aged  Dufour  was  again 
chosen  chief-in-command,  but  at  eighty-five 
years  of  age  declined  the  responsibility,  which 
was  then  intrusted  to  Hans  Herzog  of  Aargau. 
Under  his  direction,  faithful  surveillance  along 
the  Swiss  boundaries  was  continued,  until  the 
line  of  conflict  had  shifted  to  the  north  and 
west,  and  danger  to  Switzerland  seemed  averted. 
In  January,  1871,  a  report  that  Bourbaki  would 
attempt  to  enter  Germany  by  the  Rhine  caused 
the  disbanded  troops  to  be  again  assembled  for 
the  protection  of  the  bridge  at  Basle;  but  soon 
afterwards  a  Prussian  victory  threatened  the 
capture  of  the  entire  force  under  the  French 
commander,  unless  in  this  extremity  asylum 
upon  Swiss  territory  could  be  secured.  Rumors 
of  Bourbaki's  intention  to  force  an  entrance 
elicited  from  Herzog  a  published  protest, 
but  the  hospitality  sought  was  subsequently 
granted  upon  condition  of  a  surrender  of  arms 
at  the  frontier.  Officers  in  command  of  the 
fugitives  were  prompt  in  their  acceptance  of 
these  stipulations,  and  eighty-three  thousand 
French  troops  were  quietly  disarmed  and 
sheltered. 


288  Annals  of  Switzerland 

In  1872,  with  the  ultimate  object  of  extend- 
ing the  prerogatives  of  the  central  government, 
«   -^^         an  amendment  to   the  Constitution 

Constltn- 

tionai  was  proposed.    The  proposition,  then 

Amendments.        .      .     n  .    r  11  . '        ^ 

rejected,  met  favorable  reception  by 
a  large  majority  two  years  later,  when,  "to 
give  the  people  a  more  direct  share  in  legisla- 
Hie  tion,"  the  privileges  of  "the  Initia- 

initiative.  ^.v/Q  "  and  "  the  Referendum  "  were 
established.  The  first  franchise  secures  the 
submission  to  popular  vote  of  any  petition 
endorsed  by  a  certain  number  of  qualified  per- 
sons, the  requisite  number  of  signatures  for 
cantonal  affairs  being  five  thousand,  and  for 
The  federal  matters  fifty  thousand.     The 

Referendum.  Referendum  secures  the  reference  of 
all  laws,  passed  in  cantonal  or  in  federal  assem- 
blies, to  as  large  a  body  of  voters  as  can  be 
convened. 

The  Federal  Tribunal,  a  court  of  justice  for 
the  cantons  with  enlarged  jurisdiction,  was 
soon  afterward  established  at  Lausanne,  where, 
in  1886,  the  new  "Palace  of  Justice"  opened 
its  municipal  doors. 

Universal  provision  for  free  elementary  edu- 
cation was  assured,  and  cantonal  rights  were 
everywhere  guaranteed  after  a  three-years' 
residence. 


Constitutions  of  1848  and   1874     289 

The  Constitution  thus  amended,  and  accepted 
by  fourteen  and  one-half  cantons  (1874),  still 
remains  in  force.  Individual  cantons  are 
authorized  to  treat  with  foreign  powers  only 
through  the  medium  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment, but  the  exercise  of  this  central  authority 
is  maintained  in  entire  harmony  with  cantonal 
rights,  and  each  canton  preserves  the  privilege 
of  choosing  its  form  of  internal  rule.  Uri, 
Glarus,  the  Unterwalden,  and  Appenzell  dis- 
tricts continue  their  ancient  Landesgemein- 
den,  and  annually,  in  May,  the  peasants 
assemble  in  holiday  garb,  to  meet  their  Land- 
ammann,  who,  at  the  conclusion  of  a  religious 
service,  recites  to  his  "trusty,  faithful,  and 
well-beloved  countrymen,"  the  worthy  deeds 
of  their  ancestors,  and  bids  them,  thus  coun- 
selled by  example,  decide  the  course  of  their 
future  story. 

In  some  cantons,  representative  bodies  take 
the  place  of  popular  assemblies ;  but  the  forms 
of  legislation  are  as  varied  as  republican  prin- 
ciples permit.  Bern,  Thurgau,  and  a  few  other 
divisions,  reserve  the  right  to  veto  laws  passed 
in  their  district  assemblies.  In  Zurich  any 
two  harmonious  citizens  can  present  a  new  law 
for  popular  consideration. 

The  division  of  cantons  into  communes  dates 
"9 


290  Annals  of  Switzerland 

back,  according  to  an  eminent  authority,^  to  the 

period  of  the  abolition  of  the  feudal 
Commnnes.  r         ■,  • 

system,    when   the   enfranchisement 

of  the  people  called  into  existence  many  small 
communities  who  claimed  prerogatives  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  freedom  of  their  canton,  but 
remained  subservient  to  the  enactments  of  their 
representatives.  A  commune  answers  to  an 
English  county. 

It   has  been   said  that  in   Switzerland  the 
"first  business  of  the  State  is  keeping  school." 

Education  is  compulsory  and  gratui- 
Systemof  r  j  o 

PiibUc  tous  in  all  primary  grades,  and  the 

Instimctioii*  r  It*'  1 

provision  for  public  instruction  and 

for  the  construction  and  preservation  of  roads 
form  the  most  important  items  of  public  expen- 
diture. The  system  of  Pestalozzi  of  Zurich 
(born  1746),  the  founder  of  a  school  at  Yverdon, 
forms  the  basis  of  the  educational  methods 
pursued,  and  in  all  villages  communal  authority 
nominates  the  schoolmaster,  and  superintends 
the  school.  Scattered  throughout  Switzerland 
are  six  thousand  primary  schools,  and  attend- 
ance, at  least  once  a  week,  for  six  years,  is 
enforced,  although,  in  the  season  of  harvesting, 
a  half-day's  attendance  is  remitted.     In  1877 

1  See  Adams  and  Cunningham  on  "  The   Swiss   Confed- 
eration." 


Constitutions  of  1848  and   1874    291 

a  law  forbade  the  employment  in  mill  or  in 
workshop  of  children  under  fifteen  years. 

By  cantonal  law  the  lowest  salary  of  the 
schoolmaster  is  fixed  at  three  hundred  and  fifty 
francs  per  annum,  and  the  punishment  of  a  fine 
is  decreed  to  any  one  accepting  a  smaller  sum 
for  the  services  of  this  office. 

In  fourteen  cantons,  and  in  portions  of  others, 
German  is  the  spoken  language ;  French  is  the 
common  tongue  in  three  and  in  portions  of 
three  others ;  while  Italian  is  confined  to  Ticino, 
and  a  part  of  Grisons. 

German  names  have  been  retained  in  the 
first  seventeen  cantons,  except  in  Graubiinden, 
where  "  Grisons  "  is  commonly  used ;  cantonal 
the  eighteenth  canton  keeps  its  ^*™e8. 
Italian  name,  "Ticino,"  while  the  remainder 
bear  French  cognomens,  with  the  modification 
of  Geneva  for  "Geneve." 

In  September,  1890,  a  widespread  excite- 
ment was  induced  by  an  uprising  in  the  canton 
of  Ticino,  where,  since  1873,  a  con-  uprising  in 
servative  government  had  been  in  "Wcino. 
power.  Prompted  by  the  discovery  of  dishonest 
practices  at  elections,  ten  thousand  radicals 
signed  a  petition  for  a  revision  of  their  consti- 
tution; but  instead  of  submitting  the  proposal 
to  a  popular  vote,  as  both  law  and  custom  de- 


292  Annals  of  Switzerland 

manded,  the  authorities  delayed  action,  on  pre- 
tence of  verifying  the  signatures  appended  to 
the  document.  Impatient  of  the  delay,  the 
radicals  appealed  to  the  Federal  Council,  and, 
failing  to  receive  immediate  response  from  that 
body,  summarily  seized  and  imprisoned  three 
members  of  the  cantonal  council,  while  another, 
named  Rossi,  who  attempted  resistance,  was 
killed,  and  several  prominent  men  fled  from  the 
country.  A  provisional  government  organized 
by  the  insurgents  was  supported  by  an  excited 
populace,  who  seized  the  telegraph  offices,  and 
defied  the  authorities.  But  the  appearance  of 
a  federal  commissioner,  supported  by  a  mili- 
tary force,  sufficed  to  quell  the  storm,  and  to 
this  authority  the  canton  was  temporarily  sub- 
jected. On  the  5th  of  October  a  popular  vote 
in  favor  of  a  revision  of  the  constitution  was 
supported  by  the  Federal  Council,  and  in  a 
trial  held  at  Zurich,  the  leaders  of  the  insur- 
rection were  freely  acquitted,  with  the  single 
exception  of  Castione,  the  murderer  of  Rossi. 

The  sympathy  of  the  civilized  world  was  ex- 
tended to  Switzerland  in  1892  when  a  landslide 
at  St.  Gervais-les-Bains  in  Savoy  buried  houses 
with  their  inhabitants,  and,  shaking  the  support 
of  glaciers,  swept  seas  of  ice  down  the  moun- 
tain-sides that  crushed  or  drowned  multitudes, 


Constitutions  of  1848  and   1874     293 

and  completely  demolished  the  village  of  Le 
Fayet. 

By  the  constitutions  of  1848  and  1874  the 
Swiss  Confederation  ceased  to  be  "a  union 
without  unity,"  and  became  a  unified  nation  in 
which  the  twenty-two  cantons  are  vital  politi- 
cal divisions.  Bound  together  by  principles 
preserved  through  a  long  fellowship  of  conflict 
and  of  endurance,  Switzerland,  "an  Alpine 
battery  against  oppression,"  has  also  been  sur- 
named  "The  Land  of  Unfulfilled  Destiny." 


INDEX 


Aarau,  peace  of,  224. 

Aargau,  Hapsburg  nobility  in,  38 ; 
capture  of,  68 ;  religious  conflicts 
in,  261. 

Adolf  of  Nassau,  26. 

Agnadello,  battle  of,  129. 

Aix,  battle  of,  7. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  peace  of,  228. 

Albert  of  Austria,  24,  26  ;  assassi- 
nation of,  31. 

Alliance,  the  "  Perpetual,"  25  ;  the 
French,  124;  the  Holy,  254. 

Alpinus,  Julius,  11. 

Alsace,  79,, 81,  84,  90. 

Altorf,  village  of,  28. 

Amadeus  VIII.,  Duke,  72. 

Am  Buel,  Matthias,  56. 

Amendments,  constitutional,  288. 

Amiens,  treaty  of,  244. 

Ammann,  the,  19. 

Amstein,  John,  57. 

Anabaptists,  the,  140;  fanaticism 
of  the,  145. 

Apostle  of  Switzerland,  the,  133. 

Appenzell,  58,  59,  63 ;  admission 
of,  1 20 ;  the  men  of,  60. 

Arbeddo,  battle  of,  72. 

Armagnacs,  the,  77. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  131. 

Arnold  of  Cervola,  49. 

Arnold  of  Melchthal,  27,  28. 

Associate-districts,  113. 


Austria,  Albert  of,  24,  26,  31 ; 
Frederick  of,  33;  Leopold  of, 
33.  55;  Leopold  III.  of,  49; 
Leopold  IV.  of,  58,  60,  62. 

Austria,  truce  with,  79. 

Austrian    Alliance,  76. 

Aux,  Isbrand  d',  206. 

Baden,  conference  at,  146,  147 ; 

siege  of,  -jT- 
Bailiffs,  imperial,  26. 
Bailiwicks,  free,  70. 
Baillod,  Jacques,  189. 
Balderon,  211,  212. 
Balm,  Rudolf  of,  31. 
Basle,  49 ;  council  of,  67 ;  peace  of, 

119;  admission  of,  119. 
Baume,  Pierre  del  a,  162,  166,  168, 

169,  171,  172,  174,  183,  184,  185, 

187. 
Bavaria,  Louis  of,  33. 
Bayard,  the  Chevalier,  126. 
Beauharnais,  Hortense,  256. 
Bellegarde,  the  Sire  de,  175. 
Benziger,  276. 

Berengen  of  Landenberg,  26. 
Bern,  42,  44,  50,  52,  57,  58,  62,  68, 

72 ;  meeting  at,  76  ;  disturbances 

in,  229  ;  Diet  at,  272,  273,  274. 
Berthelier,  156,  157,  158,  160,  161. 
Berthier,  247. 
Bohemia,  Ottacar  of,  24. 


296 


Index 


Bonnivard,  Francis,  157,  160,  174, 

175,  176,  i9°- 

Borromean  League,  the,  205,  206. 

Borromeo,  Cardinal  Charles,  205. 

Bourbaki,  287. 

Brandenburg  peace,  the,  46,  53. 

Brun,  Rudolf,  40. 

Brune,  General,  239,  240. 

Brunnen,  Bund  of,  35. 

Bubenberg,  Adrian  von,  103,  108. 

Bull,  the  Golden,  171. 

BuUinger,  Henry,  150. 

Bundesbrief,  the  Latin,  25. 

Burgundy,  kingdom  of,  14  ;  Philip 
of,  "jT,  Mary  of,  99;  Charles 
the  Bold  of, 80,  85,  86,  107,  iii. 

Biittisholtz,  battle  of,  50. 

Calixtines,  the,  67 

Calvin,  192,  193,  195,  196 ;  mar- 
riage of,  1 98  ;  letter  to  Sadoleto, 
197  ;  character  of,  200;  death  of, 
203. 

Cambray,  league  of,  126,  127. 

Campobasso,  no. 

Canal,  the  Linth,  247. 

Cassius,  Lucius,  7. 

Castione,  292. 

Cecina,  Aulus,  11. 

Cervola,  Arnold  of,  49. 

Charlemagne,  16. 

Charles  the  Bold,  80,  85,  86,  107, 
III. 

Charles  IV.  of  Germany,  46. 

Charles  V.  of  Germany,  138. 

Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia,  279. 

Charter,  the  Women's,  58. 

Chenaux,  Nicholas,  230,  231. 

Chillon,  capture  of,  190. 

Christianity,  introduction  of,  14. 

Chur,  Bishop  of,  21. 

Cimbri,  the,  6. 

Cisalpine  Republic,  the,  238. 

Cities,  growth  of,  17. 

Clovis,  divisions  under,  14. 

Colonna,  Prosper,  129. 


Communes,  the,  290. 

Compactata,  the,  67. 

Condottieri,  the,  49. 

Congress  of  Vienna,  the,  249. 

Conseil,  255. 

Constance,  Council  of,  65,  66,68; 

peace  of,  79;  Diet  of,  126. 
Constitution   of  Switzerland,  281, 

289. 
Controversies,  religious,  138. 
Council  of  Horn,  the,  117. 
Council  of  States,  the,  282. 
Courcy,  Ingram  de,  49,  50, 

Day  of  the  Ladders,  the,  173. 
Deinikon,  peace  of,  150. 
Dominican  brotherhood,  the,  132. 
Diebold  of  Basilwind,  43. 
Diesbach,  83,  91,  93,  108. 
Diet  of  Constance,  the,  126. 
Diet  of  Stanz,  the,  114. 
Diet  of  1522,  the,  141. 
Diet,  of  Zurich  the,  120. 
Diet,  the  Swiss,  278. 
Diviko,  7,  9. 
Dornach,  battle  of,  119. 
Dornbuhl,  battle  of  the,  42. 
Dufour,  Henry,  274,  275,  276,  287. 
Duomo  d'Ossola,  70. 
Duval,  General,  224. 

Egloff,  276. 

Eidgenossen,  the,  159. 

Einsberg,  276. 

Einsiedeln,   abbey   of,    15  ;    abbot 

of,  20,  IT,  ;  assembly  at,  141. 
Embassy  to  France,  108. 
Emmenegger,  217,  220. 
Empire,  freedom  from  the,  119. 
Entlibuch,  50. 
Erlach,  General,  219. 
Erlach,  Rudolf  von,  43,  44,  94. 
Escalade,  the,  207,  208. 
Eschenbach,  Walter  of,  32. 
Estavayer,  the  "  Bad  Day  "  of,  92, 
Evangelicals,  the,  162. 


Index 


297 


Evangelists  in  Geneva,  the,  181. 
Everhard,  45. 

Farel,  William,  180,  181,  182, 
186,  188,  189,  192,  193,  194, 
196. 

Fazy,  James,  269  ;  government  of, 
286. 

Federal  Assembly,  the,  281,  282 ; 
Federal  Council,  the,  282,  287. 

Feldkirch,  covenant  of,  84 ; 
treaty  of,  213. 

Felix  and  Regula,  39. 

Felix  v.,  Pope,  156. 

Flagellants,  the,  47. 

Foix,  Gaston  de,  127. 

Foreign  governments,  complica- 
tions with,  255. 

France,  treaty  with,  78  ;  interfer- 
ence of,  190. 

Francis  I.  of  France,  129,  138, 190. 

Franciscan  Brotherhood,  the,  132. 

Franco-Prussian  War,  the,  287. 

Frastanz,  battle  of,  118. 

Frauenbrief,  the,  58 

Frederick  II.  of  Germany,  23. 

Frederick  V.  of  Germany,  76,  86. 

Frederick  of  the  Empty  Pocket, 
62,  63,  68. 

Frederick  of  Austria,  33. 

Freyburg,  62  ;  Diet  at,  108  ;  insur- 
rection in,  230  ;  capture  of,  275. 

Froment,  181,  189. 

Fuetor,  229. 

Furbity,  186. 

Fiirst,  Walther,  28 

Geneva,  94,  161,  162,  231 ;  fairs 
in,  93 ;  early  government  of, 
*53i  '54  i  ^'"i  for,  159;  laws  of, 
194,  195,  199;  alliance  between 
the  Swiss  and,  168 ;  schools  of, 
200 ;  constitutional  changes  in, 
233,  235  ;  united  to  France,  236; 
convention  in,  2S6. 


Gesler,  Hermann,  26,  27,  28,  29. 
Giants,  battle  of  the,  129, 
Gingens,  battle  of,  189. 
Giornico,  battle  of,  113. 
Gislikon,  battle  of,  276. 
Glarus,  46,  56,  57,  60,  68. 
God's-House  League,  the,  74,  75. 
Government,   the    Helvetic,   243 ; 

the  Central,  of  Switzerland,  281. 
Grandson,  siege  of,  98;  battle  of, 

100 ;  surrender  of,  99. 
Grisons,    75 ;   civil  war  in,    209 ; 

the  St.  Bartholomewdf  the,  210; 

freedom  of,  213. 
Gundoldingen,  55. 
Gypsies,  73. 

Hagenbach,  81,  85. 
Halberds,  Council  of,  165. 
Halwyl,  John  of,  106. 
Hapsburg,  Counts  of,  21  ;  Albert 

III.  of,  21;    Rudolf  I.  of,  22; 

Rudolf  II.  of,  22,  23;   Rudolf 

III.  of,  23,  24,  37, 
Hassfurter,  108. 
Hausler,  276. 
Helvetians,  the,  6,  8,  9,  11,  12,  16, 

19. 
Henry  of  Luxemburg,  32,  33. 
Henzi,  Samuel,  229. 
Hericault,  fortress  of,  87. 
Herterstein,  108. 
Herzog,  Hans,  287. 
Herzogenbuchsee,  battle  of,  219. 
Hess,  Burgomaster,  260. 
Hesse,  Landgrave  of,  148,  152. 
Hildegarde,  the  Abbess,  39. 
Hochberg,  Rudolf  of,  95. 
Hofen,  Thomas  ab,  170. 
Hordrich,  8. 

Hugues,  Besangon,  159,  164,  168. 
Huguenots,    the,    159,    166,    180, 

182. 
Huss,  John,  65,  66,  13L 
Hussites,  the,  67. 
Huzcl,  Bernard,  260. 


298 


Index 


Innocent  IV.,  Pope,  23. 
Initiative,  the,  288. 
"  Institutes,'"  Calvin's,  193. 
Instruction,  system  of  public,  290. 
Italian  territory,  112. 

Jealousies,  cantonal,  114. 
Jenatsch,  211,  212. 
Jerome  of  Prague,  67,  131. 
Jesuits,  the,  265,  272. 
Jetzer,  132,  133. 
John  of  Trocznow,  67. 
Julius  II.,  Pope,  127,  128. 

Kappel,  battle  of,  149. 
Katzy,  Ulric,  105,  108. 
Keller,  Augustine,  261. 
Kuno  of  Staufen,  59,  60. 
Kiissnacht,  castle  of,  29. 
Kyburg,  Counts  of,  21,  52. 

La  Harpe,  Francis  Caesar,  238. 
Lake  dwellers,  the,  5. 
"  La  Mazze,"  71. 
Landammann,  45,  246. 
Landenberg,  26,  27,  31. 
Landesgemeinden,  45,  246. 
Languages  of  Switzerland,  the,  13, 

283,  291. 
Laupen,  town  of,  43,  44. 
Lausanne,  94,  97. 
League,  the  Gray,  74. 
League,  the  God's-House,  74,  75. 
League  of  the  Ten   Jurisdictions, 

the,  74. 
League  of  Three  Lands,  the,  23. 
League  of  St.  George,  the,  62. 
League  of  St.  Omer,  81,  82. 
League,  the  Holy,  127. 
League  of  Cambray,  126,  127. 
League,  the  Borromean,  205,  206. 
League,  the  Spoon,  171,  176. 
League  of  Rothen,  263. 
Leipsic,  battle  of,  248. 
Lemanic  republic,  the,  239, 
Leo  X.,  Pope,  136,  137. 


Leodegar,  the  Abbot,  222,  223,  225. 

Leopold  of  Austria,  33,  35. 

Leopold  III.  of  Austria,  49. 

Leopold  IV.  of  Austria,  58,  60,  62. 

Leu,  Joseph,  262,  263. 

Levantina,  the,  72. 

Levrier,  Aim6,  163. 

Libertines,  the,  195,  202. 

Longueville,  Henri  de,  215. 

Louis  XI.  of  France,  90. 

Louis  XII.  of  France,  126,  128. 

Louis  of  Bavaria,  33. 

Louis  Philippe,  278. 

Luther,  doctrines  of,  151,  152, 

Luxemburg,  Henry  of,  32,  33. 

Luzern,  7,  18,  ^7,  38,  46,  53,  58, 
68,  71,  72  ;  CouncU  at,  75  ;  in- 
surrection in,  262. 

Maisonneuve,      Baudichon     de 

la,  186,  187. 
Mamelukes,  the,  160,  163,  182. 
Marburg,  disputation  at,  152. 
Marignano,  battle  of,  129. 
Massena,  243. 

Massner,  Thomas,  227,  228. 
Maximilian  of  Austria,  99. 
Maximilian  the  Emperor,  117, 125. 
Mediation,  the  Act  of,  245, 249, 257. 
Meinrod,  15. 
Mercenary  service,  no. 
Meyers-Kappel,  battle  of,  275. 
Micheli  of  Crest,  232. 
Milan,  the  Duke  of,  70,   73,  91 ; 

treaty  of,  213. 
Milch-Suppe,  the,  149. 
Moef,  276. 
Montalembert,  276. 
Montebello,  the  Duke  of,  255. 
Morat,   92,    103;    siege    of,   104; 

battle  of,  106. 
Morgarten,  battle  of,  34. 
Morgarten  of  Appenzell,  the,  60. 
Miinster,  battle  of,  72. 
Murbach  abbey,  37. 
Muri,  abbey  of,  258. 


Index 


299 


Nafels,  battle  of,  56. 
Names,  cantonal,  291. 
Nancy,  battle  of,  iio. 
Napoleon,  238,  244,  245,  247,  248. 
Napoleon,  Louis,  256,  257. 
National  Council,  the,  282. 
Navarre,  Henry  of,  207. 
Neuchatel,  247,  250,  254,  279,  2S0, 

284 ;    Henri  de,  87 ;    Margrave 

of,  95. 
Nicholas  of  the  Flue,  115. 
Novara,  battle  of,  128. 
Noviodunum,  9. 
Nyon,  9. 

Oberwalden,  the  hermit  of,  115. 

Oberwangen,  battle  of,  42. 

Ochsenbein,  Ulrich,  266. 

Old  Switzerland,  the  party  of,  264. 

Olivetan,  Peter  Robert,  180. 

Orbe,  89. 

Orgetorix,  8. 

Ottacar  of  Bohemia,  24. 

Pact,  the  Federal,  250,  258;  the 
Rossi,  253. 

Peace,  the  "  Bad,"  55  ;  the  "  Rot- 
ten," 77;  of  Constance,  78;  the 
Perpetual,  130. 

Peasants'  Revolt,  the,  216,  217, 
218,  219. 

Perpetual  Alliance,  the,  25. 

Pestalozzi,  290. 

Pfaffenbrief,  the,  48. 

Pfyffer,  Colonel,  221. 

Pfyffer,  Louis,  206. 

Pisa,  Council  of,  64. 

Plague,  the  great,  47. 

Planta,  Pompey,  209,  210. 

Pleurs,  landslide  at,  208, 

Pontverre,  the  Sire  de,  172. 

Progress,  intellectual,  122. 

Rapperswyl,  counts  of,  21 ;  John 

of,  40 ;  siege  of,  77. 
Raron,  the  Baron  of,  70,  71,  72. 


Rastadt,  Congress  of,  239. 
Ratisbon,  Peace  of,  46. 
Reding,  Rudolf,  34. 
Reding,  Itel,  75,  78,  108. 
Reding,  Aloys,  241. 
Referendum,  the,  288. 
Reformed  Religion,  establishment 

of  the,  in  Geneva,  191. 
Regula  and  Felix,  39. 
Reichenbach,  castle  of,  44. 
Religious  war,  first,  221  ;  second, 

222. 
Religious  divisions,  257. 
Ren6  of  Lorraine,  105,  109. 
Ren^e,  the  Duchess,  193. 
Republic,  the  Helvetic,  241,  257. 
"  Restraint,"  Uri's,  27,  31. 
Rhetia,  5,  74,  75. 
Rhetians,  the,  5,  10,  13. 
Rhetus,  5. 
Riedi,  Thomas,  72. 
Romans,  contact  with  the,  7 ;  sway 

of  the,  10. 
Romont,  Count  of,  91. 
Rossi,  292. 

Rosenthurm,  battle  of,  241. 
Rothen,  the  League  of,  263. 
Rothenburg,  Count  of,  53 ;  battle 

of  the,  275. 
Rott,  John,  52. 
Rotzberg,  castle  of,  31. 
Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  233. 
Rudolf  of  Kyburg,  51. 
Rudolf  of  Erlach,  43. 
Riitli,  meadow  of,  28;  men  of,  30; 

oath  of,  31. 

Sadoleto,  letter  of,  197. 

Sales,  Francis  de,  205. 

Sails,  209. 

Sampson,  Bernard,  136. 

Sarnenbund,  the,  253. 

Saunier,  180. 

Savoy,  94 ;  conflicts  with,  70 ; 
Peter  of,  155;  Amadeus  VIIL 
of,  155;    John    of,    157,    162; 


300 


Index 


Charles  III.  of,  157,  158,  162, 
163,  176,  177,  178,'  191 ;  treach- 
ery of,  158;  Emanuel  Philibert 
of,  191,  204,  206;  Charles  Em- 
anuel of,  207. 

Schaffhausen,  18;  admission  of, 
120. 

Schinner,  Matthew,  127. 

Schwarzwald,  the,  79. 

Schwyz,  6,  7,  22,  23, 25,  26,  32,  44, 
46,  60,  75;  freemen  of,  19 ;  men 

of,  34- 
Sackingen,  the  abbess  of,  21. 
Sempach,  battle  of,  53. 
Sentis,  the,  59. 
Servetus,  201,  202. 
Service,  mercenary,  123. 
Sforza,  Galeas,  88. 
Sforza,  Ludovico,  125. 
Sforza,  Maximilian,  128,  129. 
Siebnerbund,  the,  254. 
Sigismund  of  Germany,  66,  67,  68, 

79,  84- 
Silenen,  Jost  von,  95. 
Silenen,  Albert  von,  108. 
Simplon,  the,  247. 
Socinius,  204. 
Solothurn,  51,  52,  57,  63. 
Sonderbund,  the,    267,    268,  £69, 

270,  271,  273,  276,  277. 
Sonnenberg,  General,  267. 
Speicher,  defile  of,  60, 
Spurs,  battle  of  the,  128. 
Staeffa,  238. 
Stanz,  Diet  of,  114;  covenant  of, 

US- 
States,  Confederation  of  Thirteen, 

120. 
Stauffacher,  Werner,  27,  28. 
Steiger,  Frederick,  239. 
Steiger,  Paul,  243. 
Steiger,  Dr.,  266. 
St.  Gall,  15,  16;  Abbot  of,  21,  59, 

62,  79,  243. 
St.  Gervais-les-Bains,  landslide  at, 

292. 


St.  Gothard,  70. 

St.  Jacob,  chapel  of,  35. 

St.  Jacob  on  the  Birs,  battle  of,  78. 

St.  Jacob  on  the  Sihl,  battle  of,  77. 

St.  J  alien,  peace  of,  208 ;  truce  of, 

178. 
Stoss,  battle  of  the,  61. 
Strauss,  Frederick,  259. 
Stussi,  75,  76,  Tj. 
St.  Victor's,  priory  of,   157,  174, 

175  ;  destruction  of,  188. 
Svirabia,  John  of,  31. 
Swabian  wars,  the,  118. 
Switer  and  Swen,  5. 
Switzerland,  name  first  used,  246. 

Taborites,  the,  67. 
Tell,  William,  28,  29. 
"Terrier,"  the,  31,  32. 
Teutones,  the,  6. 
Theilig  of  Luzern,  116. 
Thiers,  M.  255. 
"  Third  of  March,"  the,  269. 
Thirty  Years'  War,  the,  214. 
Thorberg,  Peter  of,  53. 
Thurgau,  6,  79. 
Ticino,  uprising  in,  291. 
Toggenburg,  Counts   of,   74,   75 ; 

district  of,   79 ;    question,    the, 

222,  223. 
Trembly,  233. 
Tribunal,  the  federal,  288. 
Trient,  battle  at  the,  265. 
Tuileries  guard,  massacre  of  the, 

237- 
Turmann,  Rudolf,  125. 

Ulrichen,  battle  of,  72. 
Unterwalden,  7,  22,  23,  25,  33,  44, 

46,   50,   60,  71 ;   the  horns    of, 

100  ;  riflemen  of,  276. 
Uri,  7,  22,  23,  25,  26,  32,  44,  68  ; 

70,  71  ;  charter  of,  22  ;  the  horns 

of,  100. 
Utraquists,  the,  67. 


Index 


301 


Valais,  71,  91 ;   disturbances  in, 

263,  264. 
Val  d'Ossola,  the,  72. 
Valtelina,  the,  209,  210,  212,  238. 
Vauxmarcus,  castle  of,  99. 
Vend6me,  the  Due  de,  227. 
Vercellae,  battle  of,  7. 
Vervins,  treaty  of,  207. 
Victor  Emmanuel,  285. 
Villmergen,   battle  of,    221,   261  ; 

second  battle  of,  224. 
Viret,  180,  186,  189,  196. 
Vogelinsegg,  battle  on  the,  60. 
Vorort,  the,  44,  120,  246. 

Waldmann,    108;    Hans,    116; 

convention  of,  117. 
Waldshut,  siege  of,  79;  treaty  of, 

80. 
Waldstatten,  the,  26,   36,  41,  42, 

44.  48,  49,  50,  68,  70. 
Waterloo,  battle  of,  249. 
Wattenwyl,  Jean  de,  207. 
Wenceslaus,  King,  67. 
Werdenberg,  Rudolf  of,  61,  62. 
Werner,  229. 
Wernli,  Pierre,  183. 


Wesen,  town  of,  56. 
Westphalia,  peace  of,  215. 
Wettstein,  Rudolf,  215. 
Wildermuth,  189. 
Winkelried,  Arnold  von,  54. 
Winterthur,  35. 
Wurtemberg,  Count  of,  45. 

YoLANDE  of  Savoy,  88,  91. 
Young  Switzerland,  party  of,  264. 
Yverdon,  96. 

Zeringen,  thirty  lords  of,  19; 
Berchthold  V.  of,  42. 

Ziska,  67. 

Zug,  46,  48,  57,  68. 

Zurich,  16,  38,  39,  41,  44,  48,  50, 
57, 58,  68,  75, 137  ;  the  Reforma- 
tion in,  139,  140;  troops  of,  78. 

Zurich  and  Austria,  alliance  be- 
tween, 76. 

Zurich,  insurrection  in,  116. 

Zwingli  Ulrich,  133,  134 ;  call  to 
Zurich,  135  ;  in  Zurich,  136,  137, 
138,  139,  142, 143,  M4 ;  theology 
of,  145,  151,  152  ;  death  of,  149. 


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